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ENGRA\'ING   AND    ETCHING 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/engravingetchingOOIipp 


ENGRAVING 


AND 


ETCHING 


A     HANDBOOK     FOR     THE      USE     OF 
STUDENTS     AND      PRINT      COLLECTORS 


DR.     PR.     LIPPMANN 

LATE   KEEPER  OF  THE   PRINT   ROOM   IN  THE   ROYAL  MUSEUM,   BERLIN 

TRANSLATED   FROM  THE 
THIRD  GERMAN   EDITION   REVISED   BY   DR.    MAX  LEHRS 

BY 

MARTIN     HARDIE 

NATIONAL   ART  LIBRARY,    VICTORIA   AND   ALBERT  MUSEUM 


WITH      131      ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK: 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

153—157    FIFTH    AVENUE 

1906 


PRINTED    BY 

HAZELI.,    WATSON    AND   VINEY,    LD., 

LONDON    AND   AYLESBURY, 

ENGLAND. 


PREFACE    TO   THE    FIRST    EDITION 

'^  I  ^HE  following  history  of  the  art  of  engraving  closes 
^  approximately  with  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  more  recent  developments  of  the 
art  have  not  been  included,  for  the  advent  of  steel- 
engraving,  of  lithography,  and  of  modern  mechanical 
processes  has  caused  so  wide  a  revolution  in  the  repro- 
ductive arts  that  nineteenth-century  engraving  appears  to 
require  a  separate  history  of  its  own  and  an  entirely 
different  treatment. 

The  illustrations  are  all  made  to  the  exact  size  of  the 
originals,  though  in  some  cases  a  detail  only  of  the 
original    is  reproduced. 


PREFACE    TO   THE    THIRD    EDITION 

T^RIEDRICH    LIPPMANN    died   on    October   2nd, 
^  1903,  and  it  fell  to  me,  as  his  successor  in  office,  to 

undertake  a  fresh  revision  of  the  handbook  in  preparation 
for  a  third  edition.  It  has  been  my  object  to  retain  as 
far  as  possible  every  word  of  the  treatise  as  its  compiler 
left  it,  unsurpassed  for  clearness  and  compactness  ;  and  I 
have  ventured  only  to  remodel  to  some  extent  the  history 
of  German  and  Netherlandish  engraving  in  the  fifteenth 
century  in  accordance  with  the  results  of  recent  research. 
Dr.  Elfried  Bock,  Assistant  in  the  Print  Collection  at 
Berlin,  has  availed  himself  of  the  compiler's  notes  in 
making  a  series  of  additions  and  corrections. 

Max  Lehrs. 

Berlin,  Jl/ay,  1905. 


TRANSLATOR'S    NOTE 

Some  additional  references  to  English  Engravers  have  been  inserted  iu 
Chapters  VI  and  VII,  and  a  few  Ijooks  have  been  added  to  the  Bibliography. 

References  to  the  catalogue  numbers  of  prints  described  by  Bartsch  in  his 
"  Peintre-Graveur"  are  inserted  in  the  form  :  (B.  37). 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

Introduction,    i.  The  Literature  of  Engraving       ix 
2.  The  Technique  of  Engraving  .        i 

I.    Engraving  in  Germany  to  the  Time  of  Durer  .      i6 

II.    Engraving   in    Italy   to    the    Middle   of    the 

Sixteenth  Century 68 

III.  Engraving  IN  Germany  from  the  Death  of  Durer 

to  the  End  of  the  Sixteenth  Century         .    no 

IV.  Dutch  and  Flemish  Engraving      .       .       .       .134 
V.    Engraving  in  France 190 

VI.    Engraving  in    Italy  during   the  Seventeenth 

and  Eighteenth  Centuries      .        .        .        .226 
VII.    Engraving  in   England  and  the  Development 

of  Mezzotint 241 

VIII.    Engraving  in  Germany  during  the  Seventeenth 

AND  Eighteenth  Centuries       ....    259 

IX,    Engraving  in  Spain 387 

X.    Colour  Prints 293 

vii 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

riG.  PAGE 

1.  The  Burin        , i 

2.  Method  of  holding  and  using  the  Burin  .......       2 

3.  Section  of  furrow  made  by  the  Burin  (enlarged)       .....       3 

4.  The  Scraper  (reduced)    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .3 

5.  The  Roulette  (different  varieties) 6 

6.  The  Rocker  (reduced) 7 

7.  The  Mattoir  (reduced) 9 

8.  The  Echoppe 9 

9.  The  Flagellation  of  Christ,  of  1446 18 

10.     The  Master  of  the  Playing-cards  :  a  King 19 

n.  The  Master  of  the  Gardens  of  Love:  The  Great  Garden  of  Love  (detail)     21 

12.  The  Master  of  the  Banderoles  :  The  Betrayal  of  Christ  (detail)      .         .     23 

13.  The  Ma"ster  E.  S.  of  1466  :  Paten  (detail) 25 

14.  The  Master  E.  S.  of  1466  :  Virgin  Enthroned  (detail)     .         .         .         .27 

15.  Martin  Schongauer  :  Quarrelsome  Goldsmiths'  Apprentices   .        .         .29 

16.  Martin  Schongauer  :  Christ  appearing  to  Mary  Magdalene  (detail)        .    31 

17.  Martin  Schongauer  :  The  Virgin  on  a  Grassy  Bank        .         .         .         .32 

18.  The  Master  of  the  Amsterdam  Cabinet :  Death  and  the  Young  Man     .     35 
J9.  Master  with  the  Signature  yXTfU  Q  '■  Portrait  of  a  Woman                 .     37 

ao.  The  Master  I.  A.  of  Zwolle  :  The  Crucifixion  (detail)     .        .         .         .38 

21.  Master  F.  V.  B. :  The  Judgment  of  Solomon  (detail)     .         .        .         .40 

22.  Israel  von  Meckenen  :  The  Card-players  (detail) 42 

23.  The  Master  P.  P.  W.  :  Playmg-card .43 

24.  The  Master    /A  "T:  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catharine  (detail)      .        .     46 

25.  Veit  Stoss  :  Virgin  and  Child  (detail) 48 

26.  The  Master  L  c  z  :  The  Temptation  (detail) 51 

27.  Albrecht  Diirer  :  The  Holy  Family  with  the  Grasshopper  (detail) .         .     52 

28.  Albrecht  Diirer  :  The  Virgin  with  the  Bird 55 

29.  Albrecht  Diirer  :  The  Virgin  with  the  Pear  (detail)         .         .         .         .58 

30.  Albrecht  Diirer  :  The  Landscape  with  the  Great  Cannon  (detail)  .        ,     60 

31.  Albrecht  Diirer :  The  Apostle  Paul 64 

32.  Albrecht  Diirer  :  Portrait  of  Cardinal  Albrecht  von  Brandenburg  .        .     65 

33.  Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century  :  Portrait  (reduced)      ,         .     69 

34.  Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century :   The  Triumph  of  Love 

(detail) 73 

35.  Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century  :  The  Prophet  Daniel .        .     75 

36.  Robetta :   Poetry  and  Music  (detail) 76 

37.  A  Master  of  Ferrara  (?)     From  the  series  of  the  so-called  Playing-cards 

(detail) 78 

viii 


FIG. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

PAGE 

38.  Andrea  Mantegna :  The  Entombment  (detail) 8r 

39.  Jacopo  de'  Barbari  1  Judith  (detail) 84 

40.  Girolamo  Mocetto  :  The  Baptism  of  Christ  (detail)        .         .         .         .86 

41.  Giulio  Campagnola  :  The  resting  Shepherd 87 

42.  Nicoletto  da  Modena  :  St.  George  (detail) 89 

43.  Niello 93 

44.  Peregrine  de  Cesena.     Niello  engraving :  Prudence       ....     94 

45.  Marc-Antonio  Raimondi :  St.  Barbara 99 

46.  Marc-Antonio  Raimondi :  St.  CecHia  (detail) too 

47.  Agostino  Veneziano  :  The  Hour  of  Death 103 

48.  Giorgio  Ghisi :  The  Birth  of  Memnon  (tletail) 108 

49.  Lucas  Cranach  :  The  Penitence  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  (detail  of  back- 

ground)  m 

50.  Albrecht  Altdorfer  :  The  Holy  Family .114 

51.  Albrecht  Altdorfer  :  Landscape  (detail) 115 

52.  Hans  Sebald  Beham  :  The  Departure  of  the  Prodigal  Son     .         .         .117 

53.  H.  S.  Beham:  Ornament 118 

54.  Barthel  Beham  :  The  Virgin  at  the  Window 120 

55.  Georg  Pencz  :  The  Triumphal  Entry  into  Jerusalem       ,         .        .         .121 

56.  Heinrich  Aldegrever  :  The  Judgment  of  Solomon 123 

57.  Daniel  Hopfer  :  Christ  before  Pilate  (detail) 125 

58.  Augustin  Hirschvogel :  Landscape         ....  ,         .   127 

59.  Hans  Sebald  Lautensack  :  Landscape  (detail) 129 

60.  Virgil  Solis :  Allegorical  figure  of  Truth         ...  .         .   130 
6r.     Jost  Amman  :  The  Four  Elements  (detail) 132 

62.  Lucas  van  Leyden  :  The  great  '  Ecce  Homo '  (detail)     .         .         .         .135 

63.  Hieronymus  Wierix  :  The  child  Christ  with  the    Instruments   of  the 

Passion ^39 

64.  Hendrick  Goltzius  :  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  (detail)  .         .         .141 

65.  Hendrick  Goltzius  :  Portrait  of  Niquet  (detail) 143 

66.  Jan  Saenredam  :  Ceres  (detail) 1+4 

67.  Paul  Pontius:  The  Ascension  of  the  Virgin  (detail)        .         .         .         .147 

68.  Schelte  a  Bolswert :  The  Marriage  of  the  Virgin  (detail)         .         .         .149 

69.  Cornelius  Visscher  :  The  Ratcatcher  (detail) I53 

70.  Jonas  Suyderhoef:  Portrait  of  the  Preacher,  van  Aken  .         .         .         .   154 

71.  Dirk  van  Staar  ;  The  Holy  Family I55 

72.  Anthony  Van  Dyck  :  Portrait  of  Ph.  Le  Roy 157 

Cornelis  Schut :  Allegorical  composition  (detail) 159 

Lucas  van  Uden  :  Landscape  (detail) 160 

75.  Allaert  van  Everdingen  :  Norwegian  Landscape 163 

76.  Jacob  van  Ruisdael :  Landscape  (detail) 164 

77.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Beggars 168 

78.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Portrait  of  himself  (detail) 169 

79.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Landscape  with  the  Church  and  the  Sailing-boat 

(detail) »7a 

80.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  The  Angel  vanishing  from  the  Family  of  Tobias 

(detail) ^73 

81.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Christ  preaching  (detail) 174 

82.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  The  great  '  Ecce  Homo  ■  (detail)         .         .         .175 

83.  Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  The  Old  Haaring  (detail) 176 

84.  JanLievens:  The  Philosopher  (detail) i79 


73 
74- 


X  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PIG. 


PAG2 


85.  Adriaen  van  Ostade  :  The  Backgammon  Players 181 

86.  Paul  Potter  :  Head  of  a  Cow 184 

87.  Nicolaes  Berchem  :  Shepherd  playing  the  Flute  (detail).         .         .         .186 

88.  Jan  Both  :  Landscape  (detail) j88 

8g.     Jean  Duvet :  Scene  from  the  Apocalypse  (detail) 191 

90.  Etienne  Delaune  :  Abundantia 192 

91.  Jacques  Callot :  From  the  series  of '  The  Miseries  of  War '  (detail)        .   196 

92.  Claude  Lorrain  :  The  Cowherd 199 

93.  Claude  Mellan  :  Portrait  (detail) 201 

94.  Gdrard  Edelinck  :   '  The  Penitent  Magdalen '  after  Lebrun  (detail)         .  203 

95.  Robert  Nanteuil :  Portrait  of  Nicolas  Foucquet  (detail)  .         .         .205 

96.  Nicolas  Henri  Tardieu  :  '  A  Picnic  '  after  Watteau  (detail)     .         .        .  210 

97.  Pierre  Drevet :  Portrait  of  Robert  de  Cotte  (detail)        .         .         .        .213 

98.  Georg  Wille :    '  Boy  blowing   Soap  Bubbles,'    after   Caspar   Netscher 

(detail) 215 

99.  Jean  Honors  Fragonard :  Frora  the  set  of  Satyrs  at  Play  (detail)  .  .  218 
300.  Jean  Jacques  Boissieu  :  The  Village  School  (detail)  ....  220 
loi.  Jean  Michel  Moreau  (the  younger)  :   The  Toilet.     (From  Delaborde's 

"  Choix  de  Chansons,"  Paris,  1773) 222 

102.  Joseph   de   Longueil   after   P.   C.    Marillier,      Vignette   from   Dorat's 

"  Fables,"  Paris,  1773 224 

103.  Francesco  Parmigianino  (Mazzuoli) :  The  Entombment  (detail)     .         .  227 

104.  Federigo  Barocci  :  The  Annunciation  (detail) 228 

105.  Agostino  Carracci :  St.  Jerome  (detail) 229 

106.  Carlo  Maratta  :  Betrothal  of  St.  Catherine  (detail)  .         .         .        .231 

107.  Giuseppe  Ribera  ;  Bacchanal  (detail) 232 

108.  Salvator  Rosa  :  Group  of  Warriors  (detail) 233 

109.  Giovanni  Domenico  Tiepolo  :  Bacchante  (detail) 234 

no,  Antonio  Canale  (Canaletto) :  View  in  Venice  (detail)     .         .        .         ,236 

111.  Raphael  Morghen  :  The  Last  Supper  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (detail) .  239 

112.  W^illiam  Hogarth  :  The  Laughing  Audience  (detail)      .         .         .        .244 

113.  Francesco  Bartolozzi  :  Cupid  and  Psyche  (detail) 246 

114.  Prince  Rupert :  The  '  Great  Executioner  '  (detail) 251 

115.  Wallerant  Vaillant  :  Portrait !         !  252 

3i6.  Cornelis  Dusart ;  The  Peasant  with  the  Pipe  (detail)     .         .         .        .253 

117.  James  MacArdell  :  Portrait  (detail) *  255 

118.  Lucas  Kilian  :  Portrait  of  Sebastian  Schedel  (detail)      .         .        .         ,260 

119.  W'enzel  Hollar  :  Landscape  (detail) 264 

120.  Jonas  Umbach  :  Tritons  (detail) 266 

121.  Georg  Friedrich  Schmidt :   Portrait  of  Quentin  de  la  Tour  (detail).         .  269 
J22.  Georg  Friedrich  Schmidt :  Christ  and  the  Daughter  of  Jairus  (detail)    .  271 

123.  Johann  Friedrich  Bause  :  Portrait  of  J.  G.  Sulzer  (detail)      .         .         .275 

124.  Daniel  Chodowiecki  :  Illustration  to  Lessing's  "Minna  von  Barnhelm"  280 
12.15.  Daniel  Chodowiecki :  Illustration  to  Gellert's  "  Fables"        .         .         .  282 


126.  Bernhard  Rode  ;   '  Head  of  a  Dying  Warrior  '  (detail) 

127.  Ferdinand  Kobell  :  Landscape 

128.  Franz  Weirotter  :  Landscape 

129.  Spanish  Master,  fifteenth  century  :  Playing-card  . 
J30.  Francisco  Goya  :  From  the  series  of  '  Caprices "  . 
131-  Jean  Charles  Franyois  :  Portrait  of  J.  F.  Denis  (detail). 


284 
285 
286 
288 
291 
299 


THE    LITERATURE    OF   ENGRAVING 

THE  literature  dealing  with  engraving  and  etching  is 
very  extensive,  and  only  a  limited  selection  of  the 
more  important  works  can  be  here  given. 

General  works  of  reference  covering  the  whole  province 
of  the  art  are  as  follows  : 

Baldinucci,  F.  Cominciamento  e  progresso  dell'  arte  dell' 
intagliare  in  rame.     Florence,  1686. 

Heinecken,  H.  J.  C.  Idee  generale  d'une  collection  com- 
plete d'Estampes.     Leipzig,  Vienna,  1771. 

HuBER  und  RosT.  Handbuch  fiir  Kunstliebhaber  und 
Sammler.  Zurich,  1796 — 1808.  (Vol.  ix.  contains 
references  to  the  principal  works  of  engravers  of  all 
schools  and  countries,  with  biographical  notes.) 

Le  Blanc,  C.  Manuel  de  I'Amateur  d'Estampes.  4  vols. 
Paris,  1854 — 1889.  (An  attempt  to  give  a  catalogue  of 
the  works  of  all  known  engravers,  etchers,  etc.) 

Nagler,  G.  K.  Kiinstlerlexikon.  Munich,  1835^1852. 
(Contains  biographical  notices  of  artists,  and  a  list, 
sometimes  incomplete,  of  their  engravings,  etc.  New 
edition  in  course  of  publication.) 

Nagler,  G.  K.  Die  Monogrammisten.  5  vols.  Munich, 
1858 — 1879.     (Serves  as  a  supplement  to  the  above). 

Bryan's  '  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers.'  New  ed. 
5  vols.     London,  1905. 

Heller,  J.  Handbuch  fur  Kupferstichsammler.  Leipzig, 
1850.  (New  edition  revised  and  much  improved  by 
A.  Andresen,  Leipzig,  1890.) 


xii      THE   LITERATURE   OF   ENGRAVING 

Bartsch,    a.     Anleitung    zur   Kupferstichkunde.      Vienna, 

1821. 
QuANDT,    J.    G.    von.       Verzeichniss     rneiner    Kupferstich- 

sammlung.     Leipzig,  1853. 
Renouvier,  J.      Des   Types  et   des   Manieres   des   Maitres 

Graveurs.     Montpellier,   1853— 1856.     (Gives   a  history 

of  engraving,  so  far  as  practised  by  painter-etchers  and 

painter-engravers  to  the  eighteenth  century.) 
UuPLESSis,  G.     Histoire  de  la  Gravure.     Paris,  1880. 
Maberlv,  J.     The  Print  Collector.     London,  1844. 
WiLLSHiRE,  W.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study  and  Collection 

of  Ancient  Prints.     London,  1874. 
Hamerton,  p.  G.     The  Graphic  Arts.     London,  1882. 
Delaborde,     H.      La     Gravure.      Paris,     1882.      (English 

translation  by  R.  A.  M.  Stevenson.     London,  1886.) 

The  origin  and  early  history  of  engraving  have  frequently 
been  the  object  of  special  research.  Among  books  dealing 
with  the  beginnings  of  the  art  are  : 

CicoGNARA,  L.      Memorie  spettanti  alia  storia  della  Calco- 

grafia.     Prato,   1831. 
Zanetti,  a.     Le  premier  Siecle  de  la  Calcographie.     Venice, 

1837. 
Delaborde,  H.     La  gravure  en  Italic  avant  Marc-Antoine. 

Paris,  1882. 
Fisher,  R.     Introduction  to  a  Catalogue  of  the  Early  Italian 

Prints  in  the  British  Museum.     London,  1886. 
Duchesne,  A.     Essai  sur  les  Nielles.     Paris,  1826. 
Cicognara,  L.     Deir  origine  dei  Nielli.     Venice,  1827. 
Ottlev,    VV.    Young.     An    Inquiry    into    the    Origin    and 

early    History    of   Engraving.      London,    18 r 6.     (Deals 

with     the     history     of    engraving     to      the     sixteenth 

century.) 
Renouvier,    J.       Histoire    etc.    de    la    Gravure    dans     les 

Pays-Bas     jusqu'a      la     fin     du    xv^'"'"    siecle.        Paris, 

1859.      (Contains   the    early    history    of    Netherlandish 

engraving.) 


THE    LITERATURE   OE   ENGRAVING      xiii 

The  following  books  deal  with  separate  groups  and 
periods : 

Hymans,   Henry.     Histoire  de  la  Gravure  dans  rEcole  de 

Rubens.     Brussels,  1879. 
Rosenberg,   A.      Der   Kupferstich  unter  dem   Einfluss  der 

Schule  des  Rubens.     Vienna,  1888. 
DuPLESsis,  G.     Histoire  de  la  Gravure  en   France.     Paris, 

1861. 
PoRTALis,  R.,  and  Beraldi,  H.     Les  Graveurs   du  xviii*'"^ 

siecle.     Paris,  1880 — 1882. 
British    Museum.       Catalogue    of    Prints    and    Drawings. 

Political  and  Personal  Satires.     4  vols.     London,  1870. 

For  a  long  time  there  has  been  a  demand  for  carefully 
compiled  descriptive  catalogues  of  the  collected  work  of 
the  masters  of  engraving.  Interest  has  principally  been 
attached  to  the  work  of  those  engravers  and  etchers 
("  painter-etchers  ")  who  have  worked  on  the  copper  from 
their  own  original  designs.  The  following  are  important 
works  of  reference  of  this  type  : 

Bartsch,  Adam.  Le  Peintre-Graveur.  21  vols.  Vienna, 
1803 — 1821.  (This  is  the  principal  work  of  reference. 
Parts  of  it  have  been  completed  and  revised  by  Joseph 
Heller  and  Rudolph  VVeigel.) 

Passavant,  J.  D.  Le  Peintre-Graveur.  Leipzig,  i860 — 
1864.  (Based  on  Bartsch,  and  specially  valuable  for 
the  engravers  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.) 

DuTUiT,  Eugene.  Manuel  de  TAmateur  d'Estampes.  Paris, 
1884— 1885. 

Among  works  dealing  with  single  schools  and  groups 
of  artists,  the  following  are  the  most  useful : 

Andresen,    a.      Der    deutsche     Peintre-Graveur.      5    vols. 

Leipzig,  1864 — 1878. 
Kellen,  J.  Ph.  van  der.      Le  Peintre-Graveur  Hollandais 

et  Flamand.     Utrecht,  1866. 


xiv      THE   LITERATURE   OF   ENGRAVING 

RoBERT-Du^fESNIL,  A.  P.  F.     Le  Peintre-Graveur  FranQais. 

II  vols.     Paris,  1835 — 187 1. 
Baudicour,   p.  de.     Le  Peintre-Graveur  Fran9ais  continue. 

2  vols.     Paris,  1861.     (Continuation  of  the  above.) 
Smith,  J.  Chaloner.     British  Mezzotint©  Portraits.     4  vols. 

1878— 1883. 
BocHER,  E.     Les  Graveurs  Fran9ais  du  xviii^""^  siecle.    6  vols. 

Paris,  1875 — 1882. 
DiLKE,  Lady.     French  Engravers  and  Draughtsmen  of  the 

Eighteenth  Century.    London,  1902. 
CoLviN,  Sidney.    Early  Engraving  and  Engravers  in  England 

(1545—1695).     London,  1905. 
Vesme,  Alexandre  de.     Le  Peintre-Graveur  Italien.     4  vols. 

Milan,  1906. 

Useful  as  supplements  to  these  works  are  the  descrip- 
tive catalogues  of  large  and  well-known  collections,  such 
as : 

Duchesne,  J.   Voyage  d'un  Iconophile.    Revue  des  principaux" 

cabinets  d'estampes  etc.,  dAllemagne,  de  Hollande  et 

d'Angleterre.     Paris,  1834. 
Bartsch,    F.    von.      Die    Kupferstichsammlung   der  K.  K. 

Hofbibliothek  in  Wien.     Vienna,   1854. 
Delaborde,  H.     Le  Departement  des  Estampes  a  la  Biblio- 

theque  Nationale.     Paris,   1875. 
WiLLSHiRE,  W.  Hughes.     Catalogue  of  Early  Prints  in  the 

British  Museum.     2  vols.     London,  1879 — 1883. 
WiLLSHiRE,    W.    Hughes.      Descriptive   Catalogue   of  the 

Playing     and    other    Cards    in    the    British    Museum. 

London,   1876. 
Lehrs,    Max.      Katalog    der    im    Germanischen    Museum 

befindlichen     deutschen    Kupferstiche    des    xv.    Jahrh. 

Nuremberg,  1887. 
O'DoNOGHUE,  F.  M.     Catalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Playing 

Cards    bequeathed  by  .  .  .  Lady    Charlotte    Schreiber. 

London,   1901. 
CusT,  L.     Index  of  Artists  represented  in  the  British  Museum. 

Dutch  and  Flemish  Schools  ;  German  Schools  ;  French 

Schools.     2  vols.     London,  1893 — 1S96. 


THE    LITERATURE   OF   ENGRAVING       xv 

The  work  of  almost  all  important  engravers,  etchers, 
etc.,  has  been  described  in  numerous  Monographs.  As 
examples  of  the  mass  of  works  of  this  type  may  be 
mentioned  : 

Lehrs,  Max.     Die  altesten  deutschen  Spielkarten.     Dresden. 

Der  Meister  mit  den  Bandrollen.     Dresden,  1886. 

Wenzel  von  Olmiitz.     Dresden,  1889. 

Der  Meister  des  Liebesgiirten.     Dresden,  1893. 

Der  Meister   ^57"  .A.     Dresden,  1896. 

CusT,  Lionel.     The  Master  E.  S.  and  the  'Ars  Moriendi.' 
Oxford,  1898. 

Heller,    Joseph.      Leben    und    Werke    Albrecht   Diirers. 
Bamberg,  1827 — 1831. 

Retberg,    R.    v.      Diirers    Kupferstiche   und    Holzschnitte. 
Munich,   1871. 

Rosenberg,  A.     Sebald  und  Barthel  Beham.     Leipzig,  1875. 

Parthev,  G.     Wenzel  Hollar.     Berlin,  1853. 

Engelmann,  W.     Daniel  Chodowiecki.     Leipzig,  1857. 

Jacoby,    L.    D.      Georg   Friedr.    Schmidts   Werke.      Berlin, 
1815. 

Wessely,  J.  E.     Georg  Friedr.  Schmidt.     Hamburg,  1887. 
■^      Delaborde,    Henri.        Marc-Antoine    Raimondi.        Paris, 
1888. 

Alvin,  L.    Catalogue  de  I'Oeuvre  de  Jean,  Jerome  et  Antoine 
Wierix.     Brussels,  1866. 

Hymans,  H.     Lucas  Vorsterman.     Brussels,  1893. 

Wibiral,  Fr.     L'Iconographie  dAntoine  van  Dyck.    Leipzig, 
1877. 

Bartsch,  a.     Catalogue  de  toutes  les  Estampes  de  Rem- 
brandt.    2  vols.     Vienna,  1797. 

MiDDLETON,  C.  H.     A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Etched 
Work  of  Rembrandt.     London,  1878. 

RoviNSKi,  D.     L'Oeuvre  Grave  de  Rembrandt.     St.  Peters- 
burg, 1890. 

Seidlitz,  W.  von.     Kritisches  Verzeichnis  der  Radierungen 
Rembrandts.     Leipzig,  1895. 

RoviNSKi,   D.     L'Oeuvre  Grave  des  Eleves  de  Rembrandt. 
St.  Petersburg,  1894. 


xvi      THE    LITERATURE   OF   ENGRAVING 

Faucheux,  L.  E.    Catalogue  de  toutes  les  estampes  d'Adrien 

van  Ostade.     Paris,  1862. 
Meaume,  E.     Jacques  Callot.     2  vols.     Paris,  i860. 
TuER,  A.  W.     Bartolozzi  and  his  Works.     London,  1881. 
DoBSON,  Austin.     William  Hogarth.     3rd  edition.     London, 

1902. 
Fagan,  L.     a  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Engraved  Works 

of  W.  Faithorne.      London,  1888. 
A    Catalogue    Raisonne    of   the    Engraved    Work    of 

William  Woollett.     London,   1885. 
Hamilton,  E.    Catalogue  Raisonne  of  the  Engraved  Portraits 

and   Fancy  Subjects   painted  by  T.    Gainsborough   and 

G.  Romney.     London,  1891. 
Halsev,    F.    R.      Raphael     Morghen's     Engraved    Works. 

London,   1885. 

Among    works     that     deal     with     technique    are    the 
following  : 

BossE,  A.     Traicte  de  manieres  de  graver,  etc.     Paris,  1645. 

(New  edition,  with  additions  by  Leclerc,  1701.) 
Evelyn,  J.      Sculptura  :  or  the  history  and  art  of  chalcography 

and  engraving  in  Copper.     To  which  is  annexed  a  new 

manner  of  Engraving  in  Mezzo  Tinto  communicated  by 

His  Highness  Prince  Rupert.     1662. 
GiJTLE,  J.  C.     Die  Kunst  in  Kupfer  zu  stechen.     Nuremberg, 

1795- 

Barth,  C.     Die  Kupferstecherei.     Hildburghausen,  1837. 

Fielding,  T.  H.     The  Art  of  Engraving.     1841. 

Lostalot,  a.  de.  Les  Procedds  de  la  Gravure.  Paris, 
1883. 

Hamerton,  p.  G.  Etching  and  Etchers.  3rd  edition. 
London,   1880. 

KoEHLER,  S.  R.     Etching.     New  York,  1885. 

Short,  Frank.  On  the  Making  of  Etchings.  London, 
1888. 

Herkomer,  Hubert  von.  Etching  and  Mezzotint  Engrav- 
ing.    London,   1892. 

Singer,  H.  W.,  and  Strang,  W.  Etching,  Engraving  and 
the  other  Methods  of  Printing  Pictures.     London,  1897. 


THE    LITERATURE   OF   ENGRAVING     xvii 

Among  useful  sets  of  reproductions  of  engraved  work 
may  be  mentioned  : 

Brulliot,  R.     Copies  photographiques  des  plus  rares  gravures 

dans  la  collection  royale  d'estampes  a  Munic.     Munich, 

1854. 
Amand-Durand.     [Reproductions   of  the   work    of   Diirer, 

Schongauer,  Lucas  van  Leyden,  Mantegna,  Rembrandt, 

etc.     In  separate  volumes.]     Paris,  1874 — (1888). 
Schmidt,   W.      Die    Inkunabeln   des  Kupferstichs  im   Kgl. 

Kabinett  zu  Miinchen.     Munich,   1887. 
Janitsch   and   Lichtwark.     Stiche   und   Radierungen  von 

Schongauer,    Uiirer  and   Rembrandt.       Berlin,    1885 — 

1886. 
Publications  of    the    International   Chalcographical   Society. 

Berlin;  London;  Paris,  1886 — (1897). 
/       Kupferstiche  und  Holzschnitte  alter  Meister  in  Nachbildungen 

herausgegeben  von  der  Direktion  der  Reichs-Druckerei 

unter  Mitwirkung  von  F.  Lippmann.    Berlin,  1889 — 1900. 

(English  edition.     10  vols.     London,  1889 — 1900.) 
Prints  in   the   British    Museum    Reproduced.     [14    vols,   to 

1905.]     London,   1886 — 1905. 
Fagan,    L.     History   of    Engraving    in    England.      3    vols. 

London,   1893. 
Publications  of  the  Diirer  Society.     London,  1898 — ■ 

The  above  list  is  not  intended  as  a  scientific  bibliography,  but  only  as  a 
means  of  reference  to  some  of  the  principal  works  dealing  with  engraving. 
There  are  other  important  sources  of  information,  such  as  the  sale- 
catalogues  of  well-known  collections,  and  several  periodical  publications. 


Fig.  I.     The 
Burin. 


THE    TECHNIQUE    OF 
ENGRAVING 

ENGRAVING  is  the  process  of  making 
a  design  in  sunk  lines  on  a  copper 
plate,  so  that  impressions  may  be  taken 
from  the  plate  on  paper,  parchment,  and 
the  like.  These  impressions  are  called 
engravings  or  prints. 

The  plate  intended  for  engraving  must  be 
of  pure  copper,  absolutely  free  from  flaws, 
and  must  be  hammered  smooth.  It  has  a 
thickness  of  from  an  eighth  to  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch,  in  proportion  to  its 
size.  After  being  hammered,  it  is  polished 
to  the  brightness  of  a  mirror. 

The  different  kinds  of  engraving  are 
distinguished  according  to  the  process  of 
their  production. 

In  ordinary  Line  Engravi?ig  the  design 
is  engraved  on  the  plate  entirely,  or  at  any 
rate  mainly,  with  the  Burin  or  Graver 
(fig.  i).  This  is  a  four-sided  bar  of  steel, 
square  or  rhomboidal  in  section.  One  end 
of  the  bar  is  cut  off  obliquely,  so  as  to 
produce  a  strong  sharp  point  at  one  angle. 
The  other  end  of  the  graver  is  fastened  in 
a  wooden  handle,  which  in  use  rests  against 
the     engraver's     palm.      Lines    which    are 

I 


2    THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  ENGRAVING 

intended  to  appear  black  in  the  finished  print,  must  be 
forced  and  driven  by  the  burin  deeply  into  the  plate.  In 
working,  the  burin  is  held  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the  surface 
of  the  plate  (fig.  2).  By  the  pressure  of  the  palm  on 
the  handle  of  the  burin  the  point  is  moved  forwards 
in  the  direction  of  the  line  to  be  made.  If  the  plate  be 
small  the  engraver  has  it  lying  on  a  leather  cushion  filled 
with  sand  ;  if  it  be  large  it  is  fastened  on  a  movable  turn- 
table, so  as  to  turn  and  twist  to  meet  the  stroke  of  the 
graver.      The  deeper  and  clearer  the  engraved  work    on 


Fig.  2.     Method  of  holding 
and  using  the  Burin. 


the  copper  is,  the  stronger  and  purer  will  the  lines  show 
on  the  finished  print. 

While  the  burin  makes  furrows  on  the  metal  answering 
to  the  shape  of  its  point,  it  raises  up  a  certain  amount  of 
metal  on  either  side  (fig.  3).  This  produces  a  roughness, 
known  as  Bnrr,  which  as  a  rule  must  be  removed.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  the  Scraper  (fig.  4),  a  short,  dagger- 
shaped  steel  instrument  with  three  sharp  edges.  The 
scraper  is  worked  over  the  surface  of  the  plate,  following 
the  direction  of  the  lines,  and  by  this  means  the  burr  is 
removed.  The  scraper  is  also  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  out  a  wrong  line  or  a  whole  space  from  the  plate. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  ENGRAVING     3 

To  restore  the  necessary  smoothness  to  places  that  have 
been  submitted  to  the  scraper  they  are  worked  over  with 
the  BuriiisJier,  another  dagger-shaped  steel  instrument, 
round  or  ov^al  in  section,  and  having  a  highly  polished 
surface.     By  means  of  the  burnisher    it    is   also   possible 


Fig.  3.     Section  of  furrow  made  b}-  the  Burin  (enlarged). 

to  press  together,  and  so  reduce,  the  lines  of  the  burin. 
The  use  of  the  burnisher  corresponds  in  many  ways  to  that 
of  india-rubber  in  drawing  with  pencil  on  paper. 

The  Diy-point  needle  is  a  strong  steel  needle  with  a 
sharp  point,  with  which  one  draws  on  the  copper  in  almost 
the  same  way  as  with,  a  pencil  on  paper.  The  dry-point 
scratches  the  copper,  producing  extremely  fine  lines.  The 
burr  resulting  from  this  is  removed  with  the  scraper ; 
sometimes,  however,  it  is  allowed  to  remain,  in  order  to 
produce  a  particular  artistic  effect.  Dry-point  is  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  burin,  and  in  other  technical  pro- 
cesses.    It  is  possible,  however,  to  complete  a  plate  with 


Fig.  4.     The  Scraper  (reduced). 

the  needle  only.  Engravers  frequently  use  it  to  indicate 
in  light  lines  on  the  plate  the  outlines  of  their  composition, 
as  a  guide  for  completion  with  the  graver. 

Etching  is  so  called  because  the  sunk  lines  in  the  copper 
are  produced  by  means  of  acids  that  bite  into  the  metal. 


4    THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  ENGRAVING 

The  polished  copper  plate  for  etching  is  rubbed  over  with 
a  resinous  substance  called  EtcJiing-grou7id.  There  are 
a  number  of  different  recipes  for  this  ground  :  a  common 
one  consists  of  a  mixture  of  wax,  resin,  asphaltum,  and 
gum  mastic  melted  together.  The  mixture  is  worked 
into  balls,  and  wrapped  round  with  a  piece  of  silk.  The 
plate  is  warmed,  and  rubbed  over  with  one  of  these  balls, 
and  the  substance  remaining  on  the  metal  is  distributed 
evenly  over  the  surface  by  means  of  the  Dabber,  a  ball 
of  white  linen,  about  the  size  of  one's  fist,  wrapped  up  in 
silk.  When  the  plate  is  cold  it  is  blackened  by  being 
smoked.  The  smoking  is  done  by  holding  the  plate  over 
a  very  smoky  wax  taper,  so  that  the  soot  settles  on  the 
etching-ground.  On  this  grounded  and  smoked  plate 
the  etcher  draws,  exactly  as  one  draws  with  pencil  on 
paper,  with  his  EtcJiitig-necdle — a  steel  needle  fastened 
in  a  wooden  handle.  He  must  take  care  that  his  lines 
pierce  the  etching-ground,  scratching  through  it,  and 
laying  bare  the  copper  evenly  throughout  the  whole 
line.  In  between  the  lines,  on  every  place  intended  to 
remain  white  in  the  finished  print,  the  ground  must  remain 
undisturbed.  The  etcher  uses  various  needles,  sharp  or 
blunt,  in  accordance  as  he  wishes  to  produce  fine  or 
thick  lines.  When  the  design  is  complete  on  the  ground, 
the  plate  is  etched.  For  etching  or  biting  the  plate,  it 
was  usual  at  one  time  to  use  nitric  acid,  known  as 
aquafortis  ;  now,  however,  the  etcher  has  at  his  disposal 
other  agents  which  often  serve  his  purpose  better.  The  usual 
method  was  also  to  build  up,  round  the  edge  of  the  plate, 
a  rim  of  wax  about  one  inch  high.  The  surface  of  the 
copper  plate  thus  formed  the  bottom  of  a  dish,  as  it  were, 
into  which  the  acid  was  poured.  The  plate  is  now 
usually    placed    in    a   shallow   dish    filled    with    acid,   the 


ETCHING  5 

back  of  the  plate  being  painted  over  with  asphaltum  or 
a  varnish  that  resists  acid. 

In  proportion  to  its  strength,  the  time  allowed  for  its 
action,  the  temperature,  etc.,  the  acid  etches  and  bites, 
i.e.  dissolves  and  deepens,  the  places  on  the  copper  laid 
bare  by  the  needle,  while  those  portions  of  the  surface 
that  were  covered  with  the  etching-ground  remain 
undisturbed. 

The  etched  line  differs  as  a  rule  from  the  engraved  line 
in  that  it  retains  a  similar  thickness  throughout,  and  does 
not,  like  the  stroke  of  the  burin,  end  in  a  fine  point.  The 
process  of  etching  is  capable  of  many  different  treatments, 
and  can  be  used  in  combination  with  other  methods. 
Some  parts  of  the  plate  may  be  etched  deeper  than  others 
by  the  process  of  "  stopping  out."  The  plate  is  partially 
covered  with  varnish  after  the  first  biting,  and  the  un- 
covered parts  then  rebitten,  so  as  to  produce  a  gradation 
of  tone.  After  being  bitten,  the  plate  is  warmed,  and  the 
varnish  wiped  off.  The  plate,  once  bitten,  may  undergo 
additional  work  to  any  extent  with  the  burin  or  dr}'-point. 
The  characteristic  qualities  of  etching  and  engraving  may 
be  combined  in  an  artistic  union — flesh,  sk}',  water,  for 
instance,  being  executed  with  the  burin,  the  earth  and 
the  background  in  etching.  On  the  other  hand,  etching 
may  be  employed  merely  as  a  guide  for  the  burin,  so  that 
in  the  finished  work  none  of  the  etching  remains  visible, 
all  the  etched  lines  having  been  worked  over  and  deepened 
by  the  graver.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  classify 
as  different  methods  all  the  various  treatments  of  graver- 
work  and  of  etching,  as  well  as  their  combination  with  one 
another  and  with  the  other  methods  of  copper-plate 
engraving  still  to  be  discussed.  The  history  of  engraving, 
however,  shows  that  a  systematic  classification  is  insufficient 


6    THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  ENGRAVING 

to  distinguish   exhaustively  all    the    technical    procedures 
and  the  manifold  resources  of  the  art.* 

PVom  the  sixteenth  century  onwards  many  other  methods 
of  working  on  copper  plates,  besides  those  of  line  engraving 
and  etching,  came  into  existence.  In  Stipple  engraving  a 
number  of  small  dots  are  beaten  into  the  plate  by  means 
of  the  Punch.  This  is  a  steel  bar,  several  inches  long, 
having  one  or  more  points  at  one  end.     The  punch  is  held 


Fig.  5.     The  Roulette  (different  varieties). 

perpendicularly  on  the  plate,  and  the  engraver  drives  the 
point  (or  points)  into  the  metal  by  tapping  the  upper  end 
with  a  light  hammer.  The  design  is  produced  by  means 
of  a  large  number  of  dots  coming  close  together,  which  in 
the  shadows  are  thicker  and  coarser  than  towards  the  light. 

*  The  word  "engraving"  means,  in  its  narrower  sense,  work  with 
the  graver,  as  opposed  to  etching  ;  in  its  wider  sense  it  covers  the 
whole  of  those  processes  by  which  a  design  is  engraved  on  copper  for 
the  purpose  of  being  printed. 


MEZZOTINT 


Closely  resembling  the  punch  in  the  method  of  its  work  is 
the  Roulette  (fig.  5).     It  consists  of  a  small  wheel,  set  with 
fine  sharp  teeth,  working  on  its  axis.     The  axle  is  fixed  in  a 
forked  frame,  and  the  frame  in  a  handle.     When  the  roulette 
is  worked  with  more  or  less  firm  pressure  over  the  copper, 
it  produces  dotted  marks  lying  in   rows,  which  appear  in 
the  impression  as  dotted  lines,  or,  where 
the  work  is  kept  very  close,  as  flat  tones. 
Quite  different  from  the  methods  so 
far   mentioned    is  the  art  of  Mezzothit. 
The    plate    for  a  mezzotint,  before    the 
engraver's  work  begins,  must   have   its 
whole  surface  roughened  or  rocked.     This 
is  done  by  means  of  the  Rocker  (fig.  6),  a 
steel  instrument  ending  in  a  curved  edge 
and  fastened  in  a  strong  handle.     The 
edge  is  extremely  fine,  with  sharp  teeth. 
The  engraver  uses  a  rocker  with  teeth  set 
wide  or  close,  in  accordance  as  he  wishes 
his  roughened  surface  to    be  coarse  or 
fine,  with  a  coarse  or   fine  grain.     The 
tool  has  about  fifty  teeth  to  each  inch 
of  its  perimeter  for  a  coarse  grain,  and 
about  double  the  number  for  a  quite  fine 
grain.     The  rocker  is  held  perpendicu- 
larly on  the  plate,  and  as  it  is  rocked  to 
and  fro  the  teeth  are  pressed  into  the 
copper.     This  rocking  of  the  plate  is  done  first  perpendicu- 
larly, then  horizontally,  and  after  that  in  diagonal  lines,  till 
the  complete  surface  is  evenly  roughened.     A  well-rocked 
plate,  if  at    this    stage   it  be  inked    and    printed,  should 
impart   to   the    paper   an    even,  deep,  velvety   blackness. 
The  plate  thus  prepared    is  worked    with   the   mezzotint 


Fig.  6.     The  Rocker 

(reduced). 


8  THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   ENGRAVING 

Scraper,  a  steel  instrument  shaped  like  a  penknife,  with 
which  all  those  places  intended  to  remain  light  in  the 
print  are  scraped  smooth.  The  places  from  which  the 
burr  or  roughness  is  completely  removed  give  the  highest 
lights  ;  those  left  untouched  produce  the  deepest  shadows  ; 
while  intermediary  tones  are  obtained  by  a  greater  or  less 
■degree  of  scraping.  Mezzotint,  in  its  procedure,  is  quite 
opposite  to  line  engraving :  the  mezzotinter  works  from 
•dark  to  light,  the  engraver  from  light  to  dark.  The 
process  of  mezzotint  is  entirely  without  lines,  and  depends 
on  flat  tones  of  light  and  shade  melting  softly  into  one 
another.  A  mezzotint  plate  is  printed  in  exactly  the  same 
way  as  a  line  engraving.  If  an  impression  from  a  mezzo- 
tint plate  be  closely  examined,  the  marks  of  the  rocker 
can  be  clearly  distinguished,  especially  in  the  half-tones, 
as  chisel-shaped  cuts,  forming  an  appearance  of  crosses. 

Mezzotint  is  in  many  ways  akin  to  Aquatint,  which 
depends  on  a  process  of  etching.  The  plate  is  first 
covered  with  a  ground,  just  as  in  etching,  and  this  ground 
is  removed  from  all  those  places  that  are  intended  to 
show  dark  in  colour  in  the  finished  impression.  For 
this  purpose  one  uses  various  fluids  that  dissolve  or 
remove  the  ground,  such  as  turpentine  or  olive-oil,  applied 
to  the  plate  with  a  paint-brush.  After  the  acid  has 
worked,  the  plate  is  again  wiped  clean,  and  the  ground 
is  allowed  to  remain  completely  undisturbed  only  in  those 
places  which  are  to  remain  white  in  the  impression.*  The 
open  spaces  of  the  plate  are  now  dusted  over  evenly,  but 
not  too  thickly,  with  finely  powdered  asphaltum  or  resin, 

*  This  is  the  early  method  as  invented  by  Le  Prince.  The  more 
usual  process  in  later  times,  at  any  rate  among  English  aquatint 
engra\'ers,  was  to  cover  the  whole  plate  at  the  outset  with  a  ground 
obtained  by  means  of  powdered  resin,  as  described,  or  else  by  means 
of  a  fluid,  consisting  of  resin  dissolved  in  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  which 


THE   CHALK    MANNER 


Fig.  7. 
The  Mattoii- 
(reduced). 


and  the  plate  is  warmed  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  the 
particles  of  resin  or  asphaltum  to  melt  and  cling  to  the  plate 
without  running  into  one  another.  If  the  plate  be  now 
placed  in  acid,  the  minute  spaces  that  remain 
open  between  the  particles  of  resin  are  bitten, 
producing  a  roughness  on  the  plate  which 
gives  a  sepia  tone  in  the  print.  Gradations 
of  tone  are  obtained  b}'  repeated  biting  of  the 
parts  that  are  to  appear  darker,  while  lighter 
portions  are  stopped  out  with  varnish.  The 
aquatint  method  can  be  emplo)'ed  in  com- 
bination with  etching,  line  engraving,  etc. 

The  so-called  Crayon  or  Chalk  Manner  is 
simply  a  combination  of  different  methods 
which  have  been  already  described.  Its  pur- 
pose is  the  imitation  by  means  of  engraving  of  the  character 
of  chalk  drawings.  The  plate  is  provided  with  an  etching- 
ground,  and  then  worked  with  differently 
formed  roulettes  which  pierce  through 
the  ground,  particularly  with  the  so- 
called  Mattoir  (fig.  7).  This  is  an  in- 
strument formed  like  a  coarse  punch, 
and  is  roughened  on  its  under  surface 
somewhat  like  a  rasp.  The  engraver 
makes  his  design  with  the  mattoir  on  the 
etching-ground,  and  after  the  biting  an 
effect  is  produced  surprisingly  like  crayon  lines.  Wide 
pen-strokes  can  be  imitated  on  the  ground  by  means  of 
the  so-called  EcJioppe  (fig.  8).     The  echoppe  is  an  etching- 


Fig.  8. 

The  Echoppe. 


broke  into  a  granulation  as  it  dried  on  the  plate.  The  parts  intended 
to  remain  white  in  the  print  were  then  stopped  out  with  Brunswick 
black,  and  the  gradations  of  tone  obtained  by  successive  bitings  in  the 
manner  described. — M.  H. 


lo        THE   TECHNIQUE    OE   ENGRAVING 

needle,  not  pointed,  but  made  of  hard,  round  steel,  cut  off 
obliquely  at  the  end. 

In  all  work  on  copper  plates,  corrections  and  alterations 
are  perfectly  possible.  Single  lines,  which  are  not  too 
deep,  may  be  removed  with  the  scraper  and  burnisher.  If 
a  wider  surface  is  affected,  the  whole  place  must  be  beaten 
up  from  the  back  with  a  hammer,  every  mark  of  the 
previous  engraving  must  be  cut  away,  and  the  place  must 
be  freshly  polished  before  new  work  can  be  added. 

Copper  plates  are  printed  as  a  rule  on  paper,  and  the 
paper  must  be  damped  before  the  impression  is  taken. 
Printing-inks  are  usually  composed  of  a  mixture  of  thick 
linseed  oil  and  fine  carbon  (Frankfort  black).  The  plate 
is  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  ink  is  then  spread  evenly 
over  its  surface  with  the  inking  dabber,  which  consists 
of  a  ball  of  fine  flannel  or  muslin.  The  plate  is  then 
zviped ;  that  is  to  say,  the  ink  is  removed  by  means  of 
rolled-up  muslin  from  all  the  smooth  places  on  the  surface, 
until  they  are  absolutely  clean,  and  the  tint  remains  only 
in  the  sunk  lines.  While  being  wiped,  the  plate  should  be 
held  on  a  steel  board  called  the  heater,  under  which  is  a 
pan  of  glowing  charcoal  :  the  reason  being  that  the  ink 
distributes  better  into  the  most  delicate  touches  if  the 
plate  be  slightly  warmed. 

The  plate,  when  wiped,  is  taken  to  the  printing- 
press.  The  Printing-press  consists  of  a  strong  framework, 
which  carries  two  cylinders,  placed  horizontally,  each 
working  on  its  axis  by  means  of  machinery.  Between 
the  cylinders,  and,  like  them,  in  a  horizontal  position,  is 
placed  a  strong,  movable  board,  known  as  the  plank.  The 
inked  plate  is  laid  on  the  plank  with  the  engraved  side 
upwards ;  over  it  is  spread  the  paper  that  has  been 
previously  damped,  and  above  this  several  layers  of  fine 


LIMIT   OF    IMPRESSIONS  ii 

blanket.  The  plank  passes  with  the  plate  between  the 
two  cylinders,  which  are  forced  against  each  other  with 
enormous  pressure.  By  this  means  the  damp  paper  is 
driven  so  strongly  against  the  plate  that  all  the  ink  in 
the  sunk  parts  of  the  plate  is  transferred  to  the  paper. 
As  soon  as  the  plate  has  passed  between  the  cylinders, 
the  printer  takes  the  paper  by  two  corners,  and  carefully 
removes  it.  The  print  is  now  complete,  and  requires  only 
careful  drying.  The  printer's  skill  is  chiefly  displayed  in 
the  wiping  of  the  plate.  He  must  be  able  to  hit  upon  the 
exact  quantity  of  ink  necessary  for  the  intended  effect, 
and  to  distribute  the  tone  rightly  over  the  different  parts 
of  the  plate. 

A  plate,  in  the  process  of  printing,  becomes  comparatively 
quickly  worn.  One  reason  is  that  wiping  acts  like  a 
polishing  process  on  the  surface  of  the  plate.  The  work  all 
becomes  flatter,  and  this  is  particularly  obvious  in  the  most 
delicate  and  finest  lines,  which  soon  become  unable  to  hold 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  ink,  and  gradually  appear  weaker  in 
each  impression  till  finally  they  vanish  completely.  The 
finer  gradations  of  tone  are  lost,  the  lights  become  broader, 
while  deep  shadows  seem  to  remain  comparatively  un- 
altered. The  engraving  loses  its  harmony,  till  at  length, 
if  the  printing  be  continued,  late  impressions  show  only 
the  deepest  shadows,  which  stand  out  unaltered  in  hard 
contrast  to  the  cold  lights. 

The  number  of  good  impressions  which  a  plate  can 
yield  depends  partly  on  the  method  of  work,  partly 
on  the  care  with  which  it  is  handled  in  printing.  A 
plate  that  is  engraved  broadly  and  with  a  fairly  even 
depth  of  line  is  in  a  condition  to  give,  in  the  end,  more 
good  impressions  than  one  showing  fine  and  delicate  work. 
A    plate  worked  entirely    in  dry-point   yields    the  fewest 


12        THE   TECHNIQUE    OF   ENGRAVING 

impressions  of  all.  There  is  also  a  low  limit  to  the 
number  of  good  impressions  that  can  be  taken  from  a 
mezzotint  plate. 

From  a  plate  executed  entirely  with  the  burin  one  can 
count  on  obtaining,  on  the  average,  about  200  prints  that 
may  be  called  brilliant,  about  600  that  are  good,  and  after 
that  some  800  fair  impressions.  In  all,  therefore,  the 
result  is  from  1,200  to  1,500  available  prints,  followed  by 
a  large  number  of  poor  impressions,  until,  when  perhaps 
3,000  have  been  taken,  the  print  is  completely  worn  out. 

In  all  kinds  of  engraving  the  artist  should  take  Trial 
Proofs  before  the  work  is  completed,  to  judge  the  effect 
on  paper  of  his  work  in  process.  These  trial  proofs,  or 
Workiiig  Proofs,  not  only  show  the  results  from  the 
unharmed  plate  in  all  its  freshness,  but  also  often  afford 
to  the  student  a  valuable  glimpse  of  the  artist's  style  and 
method  of  work.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remarked 
that  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  very  first  impressions 
from  a  plate  are  the  best. 

Prints  taken  from  an  etched  plate  before  the  plate  is 
finished  with  dry-point  or  burin,  and  which  therefore  show 
entirely  etched  work,  arc  known  as  proofs,  or  working- 
proofs  of  the  etched  state. 

After  a  plate  is  completed,  alterations  are  frequently 
made,  which  can  be  recognised  in  the  corresponding  im- 
pressions. These  alterations  may  be  changes  made  by 
the  artist,  or  may  be  of  a  quite  external  nature,  added  by 
the  printer  or  publisher  of  the  plate.  When,  owing  to  such 
alterations,  a  set  of  impressions  is  clearly  different  from 
another  set  of  impressions  from  the  same  plate,  they  are 
recognised  as  belonging  to  different  stages  in  the  printing, 
and  are  designated,  according  to  the  particular  stage,  as 
belonging  to  the   first,  second,  third,  etc..  State.     In  the 


REWORKED    PLATES  13 

states  one  can  perceive  the  artist's  first  conception  and  its 
subsequent  progress,  the  gradual  growth  or  removal  of 
figures  and  details,  the  development  of  light  and  shadow, 
the  first  indications  of  background,  etc.  It  follows  that 
states  are  of  considerable  value  in  supplying  knowledge 
of  a  particular  artist's  methods,  a  value  which  belongs  in 
a  still  greater  measure  to  working  proofs,  of  which  a  single 
example  only  may  be  printed,  but  which,  if  printed  to 
any  large  extent,  may  rank  as  states. 

The  states  of  a  plate  may,  however,  be  distinguished 
by  more  external  marks,  e.i;:  by  the  presence  or  absence 
of  monograms,  names,  dates,  etc.  The  reference  on  the 
plate  to  the  publisher's  name  is  called  the  address  (and 
one  speaks  of  plates  before,  or  with  the  address).  In 
earlier  times  a  Latin  expression  was  used  to  describe  the 
act  of  publication — excudit  (shortened  to  tur.)  or  Foruiis. 

Proofs  before  Letters  are  those  taken  from  the  plate 
before  the  references  to  the  artist's  name,  subject  of  the 
picture,  and  so  forth,  have  been  engraved  on  the  margin 
of  the  plate. 

In  every  case  the  knowledge  of  states  enables  a  particular 
print  to  be  determined  as  belonging  to  a  certain  group 
of  impressions,  and  this  denotes  the  quality  of  the  print, 
whether  good,  bad,  or  indifferent,  more  accurately  than 
any  description. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  fresh  supply  of  apparently  good 
impressions  from  a  plate  worn  out  by  printing,  it  must 
be  reii'orked.  In  reworking  a  plate  executed  with  the 
burin  it  is  impossible  for  the  engraver  to  follow  exactly 
the  original  lines.  He  is  compelled  to  lay  fresh  lines  over 
the  old  ones  ;  and  a  plate  worked  over  in  this  way  is 
exactly  similar  to  a  repainted  picture.  The  original  idea 
is  covered  over  by  the  later  additions  ;  and  the  work  loses 


14         THE   TECHNIQUE   OF   ENGRAVING 

in  originality,  fineness,  and  harmon}',  especially  if,  as  is 
often  the  case,  the  retouching  is  done,  not  by  the  original 
artist,  but  by  another  and  less  skilful  hand.  Impressions 
from  reworked  plates  can  usually  be  recognised  by  their 
coarseness  and  lack  of  harmony.  Between  the  lines  made 
in  retouching,  the  remains  of  the  old  work  give  the  appear- 
ance of  a  grey  background.  As  a  rule  one  would  give 
the  preference  to  a  quite  moderately  good  impression 
from  a  plate  that  has  not  been  reworked  over  a  more 
brilliant  one  from  the  retouched  plate.  A  mezzotint  plate 
becomes  quickly  worn,  and  the  artist,  during  the  printing 
of  [an  edition,  ought  to  add  fresh  work  with  the  rocker 
here  and  there,  and  freshen  up  the  design.  Retouching 
of  this  kind  influences  the  artistic  value  of  the  impressions 
to  a  comparatively  small  extent. 

Artists  who  reproduce  original  work  of  their  own  com- 
position, by  means  of  etching  or  any  other  artistic  process 
of  engraving,  are  known  as  Painter-Etc/iers. 

The  quality  of  the  Paper  used  in  printing  contributes 
considerably  to  the  artistic  results  of  an  engraving. 
Artists  of  all  times,  who  have  supervised  the  printing  of 
their  own  plates,  or  have  done  the  printing  themselves, 
have  alvva}-s  made  a  particular  point  of  obtaining  suitable 
paper.  Good  impressions  of  the  works  of  the  best  masters 
always  show  paper  that  is  practically  perfect.  In  earlier 
times  the  only  kind  of  paper  known  was  that  described 
now  as  hand-made  paper,  in  distinction  from  machine- 
made  paper,  a  discovery  of  last  century. 

Water-marks  on  old  papers  are  marks  designating  the 
factory  or  the  quality  of  the  paper.  Knowledge  of  them 
is  not  without  value  in  the  history  of  engraving  both  on 
wood  and  metal,  inasmuch  as  water-marks  serve  at  times 
as  sign-posts  to  the  time  and  place  of  origin  of  cngra\"ings 


STEEL   ENGRAVINGS  15 

and  classes  of  impressions.  The  indications  supplied  by 
the  presence  of  particular  water-marks  must,  however,  be 
accepted  with  care,  for  paper  in  quite  early  times  had  a 
widely  distributed  market  as  an  article  of  commerce,  so 
that  the  same  kinds  of  paper  were  used,  for  example,  at 
the  same  time  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  In  addition 
to  this  many  water-marks,  such  as  tlie  so-called  Gothic  ^ 
or  the  fool's-cap,  were  used  at  the  same  period  by  different 
paper-mills,  not  as  a  mark  of  origin  but  of  quality. 

The  technical  conditions  of  engraving  have,  during  the 
last  century,  undergone  substantial  changes.  Steel  plates 
began  to  be  used  instead  of  copper,  and  yielded  a  very 
large  number  of  im.pressions,  though  they  were  extremely 
troublesome  to  work  with  the  burin.  The  steel  engraving 
survived  as  an  almost  mechanical  means  of  reproduction, 
and  became  completely  superfluous,  when  the  discovery 
of  a  means  of  electrotyping  and  steeling  copper  plates 
made  it  possible  to  produce  an  unlimited  number  of  good 
impressions  from  engraved,  etched,  and  other  plates. 


I 

ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   TO    THE 
TIME    OF   DiJRER 

METAL  plates  adapted  to  printing  came  into 
existence  at  the  early  period  when  ornaments^ 
pictures,  and  inscriptions  were  first  engraved  on  metal. 
Ancient  metal  looking-glasses,  known  as  Etruscan  mirrors,, 
had  engraved  ornament  on  the  back  that  with  proper 
treatment  would  have  been  available  for  printing  ;  and 
throughout  the  classical  period  and  the  Middle  Ages  the 
technique  of  engraving  was  employed  by  goldsmiths  and 
other  metal-workers.  The  invention,  however,  of  engraving 
in  the  sense  in  which  we  here  understand  it  dates  from  the 
time  when  pictures  engraved  on  metal  were  first  multiplied 
by  means  of  printing  on  paper,  and  when  metal  plates  were 
first  engraved  for  the  direct  purpose  of  printing.  We  do 
not  know  either  the  inventor,  or  the  time  or  place  of 
the  invention,  of  the  processes  of  engraving  and  printing  ; 
but  we  may  guess  that  in  the  goldsmiths'  workshops 
originated  the  artifice  of  rubbing  some  oily  colour  into 
the  sunk  parts  of  the  engraved  plates,  and  of  transferring 
the  lines  of  the  engraving  to  damped  paper  by  means  of 
hammering  or  rubbing  the  engraved  metal  ;  the  reason,  in 
the  first  place,  being  to  supply  the  maker  with  a  pattern 
of  his  design  when  the  finished  work  left  his  hand.  To  all 
appearance  the  art  of  printing  from  cut  or  engraved  metal 

i6 


ORIGIN    OF   ENGRAVING  17 

first  originated  when  the  printing  of  woodcuts  was  already 
known  and  practised  ;  and  wood-engraving,  though  depend- 
ing on  another  process,  probably  supplied  the  inducement 
for  the  development  of  line-engraving. 

Our  conception  of  the  discovery  and  the  beginning  of 
engraving  rests  simply  on  conjectures  supplied  by  the 
character  of  the  primitive  examples  which  have  survived 
to  our  day.  Judging  by  these,  it  appears  as  if  engraving 
had  its  origin  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
somewhere  in  Germany,  but  the  exact  district  cannot  be 
more  closely  defined.  Those  existing  engravings,  that 
from  their  general  style  and  their  undeveloped  treatment 
appear  to  be  very  close  to  the  beginnings  of  the  art,  are 
certainly  German,  and  the  oldest  dated  engravings  are  also 
of  German  origin.  Among  them  is  '  The  Flagellation  of 
Christ'  (fig.  9),  with  the  date  1446,  in  the  Print  Collection  of 
the  Royal  Museum  at  Berlin,  belonging  to  a  series  of  The 
Passion,  seven  plates  of  which  are  in  the  Berlin  collection. 
Drawing  and  composition  are  rough,  though  not  actually 
clumsy  ;  in  character  they  resemble  the  work  of  the 
lesser  German  painters  of  this  period.  The  graver-work 
in  these  Passion  plates,  with  all  its  rough  strength,  can 
scarcely  be  called  crude,  and  constantly  shows  consider- 
able practice  on  the  part  of  the  unknown  artist.  Any 
certain  conclusion  as  to  the  source  of  these  engravinss 
is  practically  impossible,  but  as  they  were  discovered  in 
South  Germany  their  origin  in  Suabia  or  Franconia  is 
not  improbable.  The  existence  of  the  Berlin  Passion 
series  is  not  enough  to  justify  the  attribution  of  the  birth 
of  engraving  to  the  year  1446,  yet  it  tends  to  show^ 
that  at  this  time  engraving  in  Germany  first  began 
to  come  into  general  practice.  Other  engravings,  those 
of  the    so-called    Master   of    the    Playing-Cards   (Meister 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 


der  Spielkarten),  must  have  been  known  and  circulated  as 
early  as  1446  and  1454,  for  in  several  dated  manuscripts 
of  these  years  miniaturists  have  borrowed  viotifs'ixova  the 
engravings  of  this  master.     The  '  Master  of  the  Playing- 


i !  41;^ 


Fig.  9.     The  Flagellation  of  Christ,  of  1446. 

Cards '  is  so  called  because  his  artistic  skill  was  first  employed' 
on  designs  for  a  pack  of  cards  (fig.  lo).  As  draughts- 
man and  as  engraver  he  ranks  essentially  higher  than 
the  designer  of  the  Passion  of  1446.  Engravings  such  as 
the  '  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catherine,'  some  Madonnas,  and  the: 


PLAYING-CARDS  19 

figures  on  the  playing-cards,  display  him  as  a  capable  artist 
with  a  strong  grasp  of  design.      The  movement   of  his 


Fig.  10.     The  Master  of  the  Playing-cards  :  a  King. 

figures  is  intelligent  and  clearly  expressed,  his  drawing  is 
individual  and  powerful,  the  features  of  his  well-formed 
heads   successfully   rendered.       With    a    visibly    practised 


20  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

hand  he  lays  firm  outHnes  on  the  copper,  and  expresses 
the  details  and  the  modelling  by  means  of  short,  close 
strokes,  laid  vertically  and  without  cross-hatching. 

In  the  case  of  the  '  Madonna  '  with  the  mark  of  a  Gothic 
^  and  the  date  145 1  (Pass.  II.,  p.  6),  a  print  often 
mentioned  in  recent  art  literature,  both  monogram  and 
date  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  a  modern  forgery, 
added  to  a  German  engraving  which  does  actually  belong 
to  the  earliest  period  of  the  art.  An  example  of  the  print 
without  the  mark  and  the  date  is  to  be  found  in  the 
library  of  the  Palazzo  Riccardi  at  Florence. 

A  '  Holy  Trinity '  (Munich  Library)  simply  but 
powerfully  executed  bears  the  manuscript  date  1462.  To 
the  early  days  of  engraving  must  also  be  ascribed  the 
work  of  the  *  Master  of  the  Gardens  of  Love  '  (Meister  der 
Liebesgarten),  who  in  two  different  engravings  handles 
a  favourite  subject  in  the  poetry  and  art  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  a  gathering  of  gallant  lords  and  ladies  in  a  beauti- 
ful garden.  In  'The  Great  Garden  of  Love'  (fig.  11)  the 
artist  places  his  slender,  attenuated  figures,  moving 
naturally  in  rich  landscape  scenery,  which  in  spite  of  his 
stiff  technique  is  wonderfully  pleasing.  His  native  country 
must  have  been  the  Netherlands,  and  some  of  his  en- 
gravings are  assigned  on  the  evidence  of  dated  copies  to 
the  year  1448. 

To  the  last  forty  years  of  the  fifteenth  century  apparently 
belongs  the  active  period  of  the  engraver  whom  the  latest 
research  calls  the  '  Master  of  the  St.  Erasmus '  (Meister 
des  heiligen  Erasmus),  so  called  from  a  small  engraving, 
the  original  plate  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Germanisches 
Museum  at  Nuremberg.  Judging  by  the  dialect  of  the 
engraved  legend  on  one  of  his  plates,  '  The  Good 
Shepherd '    at    Berlin,  this    engraver    belonged    to    Lower 


Fig.  II.     The  Master  of  the  Gardens  of  Love  :  The  Great  Garden 
of  Love  (detail). 

21 


22  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

Germany,  probably  to  Cologne.  His  drawing  is  dry  and 
wooden.  With  mechanical  exactness  he  engraved  rough, 
plain  outlines  on  the  copper,  and  completed  his  work  with 
a  kind  of  shading  of  cross-lines  scantily  laid.  From  the 
large  number  of  prints  by  the  Master  of  the  St.  Erasmus 
still  in  existence,  and  usually  of  a  small  size,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  he  had  a  considerable  market  for  his  wares. 
As  his  chief  works  may  be  mentioned  the  '  Descent  from 
the  Cross'  (Munich),  and  a  'View  of  Jerusalem  with 
scenes  from  the  Boyhood  of  Christ'  (Budapest). 

To  a  very  early  period  also  belong  the  works  of  the 
*  Master  of  1464,'  by  whom  we  have  a  fantastic  alphabet 
compiled  of  figures  of  men  and  beasts.  The  date  mentioned 
occurs  on  the  initial  A,  this  and  the  whole  alphabet  being 
copied  from  a  woodcut  original  of  the  same  year.  The 
name  of  '  Master  of  the  Banderoles,'  given  to  him  on  ac- 
count of  the  scrolls  that  occur  in  several  of  his  engravings, 
is  not  very  distinctive,  since  scrolls  are  by  no  means  rare  in 
the  pictorial  work  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Master  of 
the  Banderoles  puts  his  rude,  and  seldom  careful,  drawing 
on  the  copper  with  thick  outlines.  The  outlines  he  fills 
with  vigorous  shading  made  up  of  irregular,  close  strokes, 
so  that  his  prints  appear  like  strong,  though  badly  shaded, 
pen  drawings.  From  all  this  we  may  conjecture  that  the 
engraver  was  little  more  than  a  mechanical  producer  of 
popular  prints.  This  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  he 
always  borrows  his  subjects,  copying  Italian  or  German 
engravings,  or  adapting  from  them  single  ideas  for  use  in 
new  compositions.  On  one  of  his  prints,  '  The  Stages  of 
Human  Life,'  and  also  on  a  sequence  of  '  The  Seven  Days 
of  Creation,'  occur  Lower  German  inscriptions,  which 
supply  a  key  to  the  engraver's  origin.  Beside  crude  pieces 
of  work,  such  as  '  The  Days  of  Creation  '  or  '  The  Brethren 


MASTER   OF   THE    BANDEROLES 


23 


Fig.  12.     The  Master  of  the  Banderoles  :  The  Betrayal  of  Christ  (detail). 

of  Our  Lord,'  may  be  placed  single  engravings,  in  which 
the  artist  appears  in  a  more  favourable  light.  Among 
these    are   the   '  St.    Dominic '    and    '  St.    Peter,    Martyr ' 


24  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 

(Munich) — not  without  a  certain  genuine  merit,  which  for 
the  most  part  may  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  probably 
Italian  original — and  the  '  Battle  of  the  Women  in  Men's 
Clothing,'  in  which  the  composition  of  the  copied  Italian 
print  has  been  altered  with  decided  ingenuity  so  as  to 
become  German  in  costume  and  feeling.  The  active 
period  of  the  Master  of  the  Banderoles  may  be  supposed 
to  extend  over  the  years  1460  to  1470. 

Out  of  its  stages  of  awkward  and  primitive  technique 
engraving  was  raised  by  a  master  whom,  in  ignorance  of 
his  real  name,  we  call  the  '  Master  E.  S.  of  1466'  (1467). 

The  Master  E.  S.  of  1466  first  showed  the  way  by 
which  engraving  might  attain  its  full  artistic  expression. 
His  efforts  in  this  art  may  be  compared  with  the  work  of 
the  brothers  Van  E}-ck  in  the  development  of  painting. 
Owing  to  his  distinctly  individual  style  a  large  number  of 
engravings  may  be  attributed  to  him  with  some  certainty, 
although  only  twenty-one  bearing  his  signature  actually 
exist.  Of  these  some  are  dated  1466,  others  1467.  An 
explanation  of  the  fact  that  his  signed  prints  are  so  few 
in  comparison  with  the  wide  range  of  his  work  is  sought 
in  the  assumption  that  he  first  began  to  sign  his  work  at 
the  end  of  his  artistic  career,  and  that  1466  and  1467  are 
the  last  years  of  his  working  period. 

The  Master  E.  S.  belongs  to  the  Upper  German  School, 
and  may  be  supposed  to  have  resided  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Strasburg.  The  dialect  of  his  inscriptions  is 
North  German  to  a  pronounced  degree.  Flemish  art  has 
undoubtedly  influenced  him  strongly,  but  in  absorbing 
it  he  has  remained  independent,  and  is  no  mere 
imitator  of  the  Van  Eyck  School.  In  any  case  he 
belongs  to  those  artists  who  in  the  middle  of  the  century 
produced    a    new    tendency   in    Upper    German    painting. 


Fig.  13.     The  Master  E.  S.-of  1466  :  Paten  (detail). 


26  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 

His  figures  are  slender  even  to  leanness,  bony,  lifelike, 
and,  as  a  rule,  full  of  movement.  Peculiar  to  him  is  a 
particular  type  of  face — the  nose  long,  slightly  curved 
inwards,  ending  in  a  rounded  point ;  the  brow  round  and 
high  ;  the  mouth  small  and  pursed. 

The  Master  E.  S.  was  the  first  to  use  the  burin  with 
absolute  sureness  and  freedom,  and  with  a  clear  purpose 
to  a  definite  end.  He  obtains  his  modelling  by  laying 
simple  hatchings  of  vertical  lines,  becoming  finer  towards 
the  light,  and  produces  gradations  of  tone  by  means  of 
dotted  marks  on  the  plate. 

His  famous  masterpiece,  the  so-called  '  Mary  of  Ein- 
siedeln,'  dated  1466,  bears  reference  to  the  monastery  of 
the  same  name  in  Switzerland,  and  was  engraved  as  a 
memento  for  pilgrims  of  the  Festival  of  the  Angelic 
Consecration,  which  was  celebrated  there  in  1466  with 
particular  pomp.  (The  legend  has  it  that  the  chapel  was 
originally  consecrated  by  angels.)  The  engraving,  exe- 
cuted with  tenderness  and  care,  was  probably  not  made 
on  the  spot,  for  the  chapel  bears  no  resemblance  to  the 
actual  building.  Above  the  chapel  are  the  heavenly  hosts 
consecrating  it,  and  kneeling  pilgrims  below. 

In  his  representations  of  the  Virgin  the  Master  E.  S. 
gives  full  expression  to  the  sentiment  of  the  older  art. 
He  loves  to  set  her  amid  the  calm  and  dignity  of  churchly 
surroundings,  on  a  Gothic  throne  beneath  a  baldacchino 
(fig.  i'4).  He  is  also  obviously  eager  to  give  to  his  Christ 
an  expression  of  strength  and  earnestness.  His  first  type 
tends  to  fall  into  affectation,  his  second  into  sullenness  ; 
but  wherever  he  finds  scope  for  realistic  representation, 
there  he  is  in  his  element.  The  landscapes  of  his  back- 
grounds, the  plants  and  grass  on  their  natural  soil,  are 
interpreted  with  loving  care.     In  his  pictures  of  interiors, 


THE    MASTER   E.   S. 


27 


as  in  the  'Virgin  in  her  Chamber,'  he  introduces  a  number 
■of  cleverly  treated  details,  though  with  an  uncertain  grasp 
of  perspective.  His  treatment  of  Gothic  ornament  is 
•always  pleasing,  as  in  his  large  '  Paten  '  (fig.  13).     In  one 


Fig.  14.     The  Master  E.  S.  of  1466  :  Virgin  Enthroned  (detail). 

of  the  packs  of  playing-cards  engraved  by  him  the  birds 
forming  one  suit  are  drawn  with  a  surprising  certainty  in 
the  perception  of  momentary  positions  and  movements. 
A  number  of  engravings,  approaching   very  nearly   in 


28  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

style  to  the  work  of  the  Master  E.  S.,  have  been  grouped 
together  as  the  work  of  the  '  Master  of  the  Sibyl/" 
taking  their  name  from  one  plate,  which  pictures  the 
Emperor  Augustus  with  the  Sibyl.  The  only  apparent 
difference  between  these  and  the  authentic  signed  work 
of  the  Master  E,  S.  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  effect  is- 
usually  obtained  by  dotted  strokes,  which  give  a  peculiar 
character  to  the  prints.  The  latest  supposition  is  that 
this  group  of  engravings  belongs  to  the  earliest  period 
(about  1450)  of  the  Master  E.  S. 

If  the  Master  E.  S.  won  for  the  art  of  engraving  greater 
scope  and  freedom,  to  Martin  Schongauer  belongs  the 
distinction  of  having  risen  above  the  narrowness  and 
prejudice  in  which  engraving  was  still  bound  up,  and 
of  having  created  works  whose  value  has  been  understood 
and  unreservedly  admitted  by  all  later  times. 

Belonging  to  a  family  of  artists  which  had  emigrated 
to  Kolmar,  and  apparently  born  there  about  1445^ 
Schongauer  seems  to  have  received  his  education  for  the 
most  part  in  the  Netherlands  under  the  influence  of  Roger 
van  der  Weyden  or  his  School.  After  this  he  settled  in 
Kolmar,  and  remained  there  until  the  time  of  his  death 
at  Breisach  in  1491.  During  his  very  short  lifetime — 
assuming  that  he  really  was  born  in  1445 — he  engraved 
1 1 5  plates,  which  all  bear  his  well-known  monogram : 
/\  ^  S  •  In  their  masterly  drawing,  in  the  clearness 
and  sharpness  of  their  line,  above  all  in  their  sympathy 
and  sincerity,  Schongauer's  engravings  are  full  of  charm. 
Knowing  nothing  of  scientific  anatomy,  Schongauer 
makes  his  figures,  and  particularly  their  extremities,  too 
slight ;  the  joints  are  anatomically  incorrect,  the  hands 
shrunken.  Nevertheless  he  rules  as  an  absolute  master 
in  his  portrayal  of  the  whole  scale  of  character,  expressing 


MARTIN    SCHOXGAUER 


29 


with  equal  skill  the  roughness  of  a  soldier,  the  youthful 
graciousness  of  an  angel,  the  tender  sympathy  of  the 
Virgin,  the  intense  sublimity  of  Christ.  At  the  same  time 
he  is  no  stranger  to  the  humorous  and  grotesque. 

Drapery  has  been  carefully  and  soundly  studied  by 
Schongauer.  The  folds  of  his  costumes  are  angular  and 
sharp,  in  accordance  with  the  hang  of  those  silk  textiles 
which  the  painters  of  the  fifteenth  century  imagined  as 
the   clothing   of  their  Virgins   and  Saints.     Schoneauer's 


Fig.  15.     Martin  Schongauer  :  Quarrelsome  Goldsmiths' Apprentices. 

graver-work  is  so  strong  that  good  impressions  still  show 
the  ink  standing  in  clear  relief.  His  modelling  is  soft,  his 
lines  shading  off  in  fine  strokes  towards  the  lights.  His 
engravings  are  always  bright  and  harmonious.  None  of 
Schongauer's  plates  are  dated,  so  that  it  is  only  from 
indications  of  style  and  technique  that  we  can  obtain  an 
approximate  idea  of  his  development.  Yet  we  first  make  his 
acquaintance  at  the  period  when,  as  an  independent  master, 
he  had  the  right  to  leave  this  mark.  In  those  engravings 
which  we  ma}-  reckon  as  his  earliest,  such  as  the  '  Christ 


30  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

with  Mary  and  St.  John '  (B.  69)  or  '  The  Virgin  on  the 
Crescent  Moon'  (B.  31),  the  graver-work  is  still  thin  and 
uneven,  and  to  some  extent  reminiscent  of  the  Master  E.  S.. 
In  the  principal  work  of  this  early  period,  a  plate  famous- 
for  its  powerful  fantasy — '  The  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony ' 
— the  demons  that  drag  the  saint  into  the  air  are  not  only 
full  of  originality,  but  in  spite  of  all  their  abstraction  are 
wonderfully  natural  in  form,  and  bear  witness  to  the  keen 
observation  of  nature  which  Schongauer  reveals  in  all  his- 
work.  The  same  quality,  united  with  sense  of  humour,  ap- 
pears in  his  comic  '  Family  of  Pigs  '  (B.  95),  in  his  '  Quarrel- 
some Apprentices'  (B.  91)  [fig.  15],  and  in  his  'Peasants 
going  to  Market.' 

To  the  close  of  Schongaucr's  early  period  may  be  assigned 
two  engravings  full  of  figures — '  The  Death  of  the  Virgin' 
(B.  33)  and  the  large  '  Christ  bearing  the  Cross  '  (B.  21  jfthe 
latter,  in  breadth,  grandeur  of  conception,  and  majesty 
of  style,  being  Schongauer's  finest  work.  In  the  figure  of 
our  Lord  crushed  under  the  weight  of  the  cross  Schongauer 
created  an  almost  universally  accepted  type,  which  Raphael 
and  Diirer  made  their  own.  Schongauer's  technique,  which 
in  the  last-named  work  is  still  somewhat  unfinished,  be- 
comes more  polished  and  refined  in  the  twelve  plates  of 
his  Passion  series;'and  in  the  superb  '  Burial  of  our  Lord ' 
and  the  '  Christ  bearing  the  Cross '  reaches  a  full  and  even 
brilliance.  The  'Christ  appearing  to  Mary  Magdalene' 
(fig.  16),  a  plate  that  in  subject  and  style  attaches  itself  to 
the  Passion  series,  is  one  of  the  most  moving  creations 
in  German  art,  equally  remarkable  for  vividness  of  com- 
position and  dignity  of  execution.  Closely  akjn  to  it 
is  the  large  'Christ  faring  the  Cross'  (B.  2$),  a.  plate 
conceived  under  the  influence  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden, 
but  perhaps  surpassing  his  work  in  depth  and  sincerity. 


Fig.  16.     Martin  Schongauer:  Christ  appearing  to  Mary  Magdalene  (detail). 

31 


32 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 


With  the  gradual  development  of  Schongauer's  technique 
towards   regularity  and   refinement   his   expression  of  the 


Fig.  17.     Martin  Schongauer  :  The  Virgin  on  a  Grassy  Bank. 

human  form  and  his  treatment  of  human  features  show  a 
growing  nobility.  Particularly  in  his  pictures  of  the  Virgin 
is  it  possible  to  trace  the  change  from  the  unripeness  of  his 


MARTIN    SCHONGAUER  33 

earlier  plates  to  the  complete  repose  and  noble  dignity 
of  his  later  work.  At  the  summit  of  his  art,  from  this 
point  of  view,  stand  'The  Annunciation'  (B.  i)  and  'The 
Angel  of  the  Annunciation  '  (B.  2),  the  figures  being  visions 
of  winsomeness  and  charm.  '  The  Virgin  on  a  Grassy 
Bank  '  (fig.  17),  and  especially  '  The  Virgin  in  the  Court,' 
must  rank,  in  the  masterly  simplicity  of  their  composition, 
among  the  noblest  representations  of  the  Mother  of  our  Lord. 
During  his  later  period  Schongauer  shows  a  preference  for 
single  figures,  often  of  extraordinary  charm,  such  as  Saints 
Catherine,  Barbara,  Agnes,  etc.  His  growing  power  of 
finely  balanced  and  decorative  composition,  characterised 
by  perfect  taste,  is  also  expressed  in  his  ornamental 
designs,  in  which  he  employs  the  later  Gothic  style  with  a 
complete  sense  of  proportion.  Among  his  productions 
of  this  kind  his  ten  round  shields  with  coats-of-arms 
are  particularly  interesting  and  original.  Two  larger 
engravings  represent  a  Gothic  censer  and  a  bishop's 
crozier. 

Even  during  his  lifetime  Schongauer  was  imitated  and 
copied  by  numerous  painters,  engravers,  and  designers 
on  wood.  Whether  he  actually  taught  pupils  is  not 
known.  Schongauer's  signature  appears  on  a  series  of 
engravings,  the  work  of  various  hands,  belonging  to  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  ;  others,  that  are  unsigned,  are  executed  in  one 
or  other  of  his  kindred  styles.  Many  of  these  engravings 
are  based  on  the  master's  compositions ;  others  belong 
to  the  imitations  and  forgeries  that  follow  in  the  train  of 
every  great  artist's  work. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  other  members  of  the  Schon- 
gauer family,  besides  Martin,  worked  as  engravers.  The 
monogram   I4  rf*   ^>  found  on  some  engravings  obviously 

3 


34  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

produced  under  the  influence  of  Martin  Schongauer,  is 
ascribed  to  Luduig,  Martin  Schongauer's  brother.  In 
nearer  relation  to  Schongauer  stands  the  engraver  with 
the  mark  BM.  In  many  of  his  plates,  as  in  'St.  John 
upon  Patmos,'  he  displays  a  fine  conception,  soft  and 
pleasant  drawing,  and  a  style  of  engraving  somewhat 
amateurish,  but  distinctly  akin  to  Schongauer's  manner  ; 
others  of  his  plates,  such  as  'The  Judgment  of  Solomon,' 
telling  in  composition,  but  rough  in  execution,  are  appar- 
ently based  on  drawings  by  Schongauer.  The  signature 
t(5(  ^  is  ascribed  by  old  tradition  to  an  unauthenticated 
Barthel  Schongauer — an  obviously  impossible  attribution, 
for  later  research  reads  the  monogram  as  b  g  and  not  as 
b  s.  The  artist  who  uses  this  monogram  is  a  skilled 
draughtsman  with  a  preference  for  genre  scenes  and  single 
figures,  rendered  with  much  spirit  ;  but  his  plates  are  light 
sketches  rather  than  finished  engravings.  A  chance  hint 
of  his  period  and  residence  is  supplied  by  a  plate,  which 
is  signed  with  his  monogram,  and  represents  the  arms  of 
the  Frankfurt  families  of  Rohrbach  and  Holzhauscn  ;  it 
may  be  assumed  to  have  been  made  in  record  of  a 
marriage  between  members  of  these  families  in  the  year 
1466.  The  original  copper  plate  is  still  in  the  possession 
of  the  iiolzhausen  family.  Although  the  Master  t>^  & 
copied  Schongauer's  Passion  series,  in  style  and  technique 
he  is  in  no  way  dependent  on  Schongauer.  The  engraver 
^^  $  appears  to  stand  in  much  nearer  relation  to  the 
School  of  the  middle  Rhine  and  to  the  so-called  Master 
of  the  Amsterdam  Cabinet. 

The  Master  of  the  Amsterdam  Cabinet,  or  Master  of 
1480,  as  he  has  been  called  from  a  supposed  autograph 
date  on  one  of  his  engravings,  owes  his  first  title  solely 
to  the  circumstance  that  the  finest  collection  of  his  work 


MASTER   OF   THE   AMSTERDAM    CABINET     35 


Fig.  18.    The  Master  of  the  Amsterdam  Cabinet :  Death  and  the  Young  Man. 


happens    to   be    in   the   Museum  at  Amsterdam  ;  his  art, 
however,  has  no  connection  whatever  with  that  of  Holland. 


36  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 

The  Master  belongs  much  more  evidently  to  the  Rhenish 
School,  and  shows  an  originality  of  composition  and  a 
brilliance  of  drawing  that  place  him  among  the  greatest 
German  masters.  The  rarity  of  his  engravings  arises 
from  the  fact  that  his  plates  could  yield  extremely  few 
good  impressions,  his  work  on  the  plate  with  needle  or 
burin  being  extremely  delicate.  At  the  same  time  his 
light,  almost  sketchy,  yet  highly  artistic  treatment  lends 
these  plates  unusual  charm.  Ninety  engravings  which  can 
be  attributed  with  certainty  to  this  artist  are  now  known. 
His  pictures  of  saints  and  scenes  from  the  Bible  are  full 
of  originality  and  free  from  all  restraints  of  tradition  ; 
but  he  is  at  his  happiest  in  genre  scenes,  where  he  can 
allow  free  play  to  his  individual  fancy  in  the  representation 
of  figures. 

Twice  he  treats  with  a  note  of  intense  tragedy  the 
theme  of  Death,  in  one  plate  showing  Death  laying  a 
warning  hand  on  the  shoulder  of  a  gaily  clad  young  man 
(fig.  1 8),  in  another  giving  the  '  Legend  of  the  three  Dead 
and  three  Live  Kings.'  Next  to  him,  though  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  if  judged  by  the  standard  of  artistic 
merit,  stands  the  above-mentioned  Master  1>P<  3,  who  has 
evidently  copied  a  series  of  lost  originals  by  him,  as 
was  also  done  by  Wenzel  von  Olmiitz  and  Israel  von 
Meckenen. 

Along  with  this  group  must  also  be  placed  an  artist 
by  whom  we  have  four  noteworthy  engraved  portraits, 
two  signed  in  the  lower  margin  V7^1B'  vigorous  in 
composition,  clever  in  drawing,  clear  and  firm  in  engrav- 
ing. Their  unknown  designer,  who  must  have  been  no 
mean  artist,  belongs  to  the  Suabian  School  and  in  any 
case  is  of  the  fifteenth  century.  His  technique  is  akin  to 
that  of  Schongaucr,  but  is    less    refined  and  regular.     In 


EARLY   ENGRAVED    PORTRAITS. 


n 


Fig.  19.     Master  with  the  Signature    'N^'^  P  :  Portrait  of  a  Woman, 

the  domain  of  German  art  these  plates  are  the  earliest 
successful  attempt  at  producing  portraits  from  the  life  by 
means  of  engraving. 

The  improvements  in  the  technique  of  engraving 
effected  by  the  Master  E.  S.  and  by  Schongauer  are 
essentially   the    foundation    on    which    rests    the   work    of 


Fig.  20.     The  Master  I.  A.  of  Zwolle  :  The  Crucifixion  (detail). 
38 


ILLUSTRATIONS   TO    BOCCACCIO  39 

the  engravers  of  the  Netherlandish  and  Lower  Rhenish 
Schools.  Of  the  personality  of  these  engravers  and  of 
the  sequence  of  their  work  we  have  only  scanty  evidence 
here  and  there  ;  instead  of  names  we  must  be  content 
with  the  monograms  on  their  plates. 

A  fairly  certain  indication  of  the  time  and  place  of 
their  origin  is  offered  by  ten  unsigned  engravings  in 
illustration  of  Giovanni  Boccaccio's  "  Tales  of  the  Mis- 
fortunes of  Princes."  Though  they  now  appear  detached, 
they  are  illustrations  of  an  edition  of  Boccaccio  printed, 
in  a  French  translation,  by  Colard  Mansion  at  Bruges 
in  1476.  Engraved  in  light  outline,  they  are  absolutely 
identical,  in  manner  and  style,  with  the  miniature  illumina- 
tions of  the  Burgundian-Flemish  School,  which  flourished 
with  such  rich  results  at  the  time  of  Charles  the  Bold. 
These  outline  engravings  were  intended  to  serve  as  a 
guide  to  illuminators,  as  is  shown  by  a  still  existing 
copy  of  the  book  mentioned,  in  which  the  nine  engravings 
occur  in  the  form  of  painted  miniatures. 

To  the  Dutch  School  of  the  fifteenth  century,  whose 
principal  representatives  in  painting  are  Ouwater  and 
Geertgen  van  St.  Jans,  belongs  the  engraver  named,  on 
account  of  a  mark  on  his  plates  (3IABlA=o-^^_^y-N^  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  interpret,  the  Master  with  the  \V  eaver's 
Shuttle.  The  word  ZWOLL,  also  found  on  his  plates  in 
addition  to  the  initials  I.  A.  and  the  mark  placed  between, 
permits  the  assumption  that  the  artist  came  from  Zwolle, 
or  worked  there.  With  the  old  Dutch  School  he  shares 
a  love  for  vigorous  expression  and  passionate  movement. 
In  this  and  in  the  keen  type  of  his  faces  he  is  particularly 
reminiscent  of  Geertgen  van  St.  Jans.  The  technique  of 
the  Master  of  Zwolle  is  pure,  clear,  and  regular,  but  at  the 
same  time  drier  than  that  of  Schongauer.     Many  of  this 


Fig.  21.     Master  F.  V.  B.  :  The  Judgment  of  Solomon  (detail). 
40 


THE   MASTER   F.  V.  B.  41 

master's  engravings  are  of  a  larger  size  than  was  generally 
in  use  among  the  North  German  artists  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  his  'Betrayal  of  Christ  in  Gethsemane '  he 
makes  an  attempt  to  reproduce  the  effects  of  lights  in  a 
night  scene.  Though  in  this  particular  plate  he  stoops  to 
exaggeration  of  violent  movement,  he  is  no  stranger  to  the 
expression  of  calm  solemnity,  as  is  shown  by  his  '  Adoration 
of  the  Kings'  or  his  '  Holy  Women  mourning  over  Christ.' 
The  Virgin  of  the  Master  of  Zwolle  has  a  mild  and  gentle 
expression,  again  recalling  the  feminine  types  of  Geertgen 
van  St.  Jans.  He  is  fond  of  introducing  intricate  Gothic 
architecture  and  forms  of  ornament.  To  the  Netherlands 
also  belongs  the  master  with  the  Monogram  -^^  ^,  who 
shows  some  relationship  with  the  Master  of  Zwolle  in  his 
use  of  Gothic  architectural  forms,  but  on  the  whole  appears 
more  restrained.  The  Master  F.  V.  B.  is  stated  by  old 
tradition  to  be  Franz  von  Bocholt ;  but  it  is  still  unproved 
that  there  ever  was  an  engraver  of  this  name.  This  artist 
also  belongs  to  the  Netherlands  or  to  the  Lower  Rhine, 
and  in  his  expressive  style  of  drawing  and  composition 
recalls  the  work  of  Dierick  Bouts.  The  Master  F.  V.  B.  is 
an  excellent  artist,  who,  among  the  northern  engravers  ot 
this  period,  must  be  placed  very  near  in  rank  to  Schongaucr. 
His  style  of  engraving  is  free  and  sure,  but  at  the  same 
time  careful.  His  'Judgment  of  Solomon  '  (fig.  21),  with  its 
throng  of  figures,  is  masterly  in  composition,  and  its  spirited, 
powerful  treatment  makes  it  one  of  the  most  noteworthy 
engravings  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Fine  and  earnest 
in  conception  are  his  '  Annunciation  '  and  his  '  Figures 
of  the  Apostles.' 

Israel  von  Meckenen,  an  extremely  active  engraver  and 
goldsmith,  whose  work  amounts  to  over  570  plates,  appears 
to  have  worked  at  Bocholt  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 


42  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO    1528 

and  to  have  died  there  in  1503.  Israel  appears  as  a  most 
prolific  picture-maker,  belonging  in  style  to  the  Flemish 
and  Netherlandish  School,  whose  types  of  feature  and 
form  he  adopts  in  most  of  his  works  without  special 
refinement  or  sympathy.  Only  when  he  portrays  scenes 
taken    from    dailv    life    does    Meckenen     show   that    he 


Fig.  22.     Israel  von  Meckenen  :  The  Card-players  (detail). 

possesses  real  power  of  observation  combined  with  fresh- 
ness of  humour,  as  is  particularly  proved  by  his  various 
*  Scenes  of  Domestic  Life,'  his  comic  '  Family  of  Foxes,' 
and  similar  engravings.  As  a  rule,  he  copies  other 
artists — Schongauer,  the  Master  E.  S.,  the  early  work  of 
Diirer,  the  Master  of  the  Amsterdam  Cabinet,  and  so 
forth  ;   and  apparently  most  of  his  engravings  are  mere 


ISRAEL   VOX    MrXKENEN 


43 


copies.  For  a  series  of  cn<^ravings  of  the  '  Life  of  the 
Virgin  '  Meckencn  has  made  use  of  pictures  by  the  elder 
Holbein,  as  is  proved  without  doubt  by  four  of  the  prints. 
Whether  Meckcnen  himscll  saw  the  pictures,  which  are 
still  preserved  at  Augsburg,  or  how  their  composition 
was  communicated  to  him,  remains  still  unknown.  Plates 
by  other  masters,  for  example  some  by  the  Master  F.  V.  B., 
which  came  into    his   hands    in  a  worn   condition,  he   re- 


Fig.  23.     The  Master  P.  P.  W. :  Playing-card. 


worked,  adding  his  own  signature  without  any  shame  to 
another  man's  work.  Retouching,  indeed,  plays  an  im- 
portant part  throughout  Meckenen's  work.  As  soon  as  his 
own  plates  began  to  show  signs  of  wear  by  printing,  he 
would  give  them  a  fresh  appearance  by  going  over  the 
old  work  and  making  all  manner  of  cunning  additions  with 
the  graver.  Mcckenen  is  one  of  the  first  artists  whose 
engravings  appear  in  several  states.  All  kinds  of  subjects 
pertaining    to    his    time    are    treated    in    his    prints.      In 


44  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

spite  of  his  only  moderate  artistic  skill  his  engravings  attract 
by  the  abundance  of  their  subjects,  the  manifold  variety 
of  contemporary  costumes,  and  the  wealth  of  their  detail, 
particularly  where  opportunity  admitted  of  such  display, 
as  in  his  'Birthday  of  Herod,'  'Judith  in  the  Tent  of 
Holofernes,'  etc.  Among  his  most  unsatisfactory  prints 
are  his  banal,  and  often  absolutely  crude  representations  of 
Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  Saints.  Meckenen  was  a  capable 
goldsmith,  and  as  such  reveals  himself  in  some  excellent 
engravings  of  ornament,  in  which  beautiful  Gothic  foliage 
unites  with  figures  of  men  and  animals  in  a  delightful 
whole. 

The  engraver  with  the  monogram  p  p)  W  worked  at 
Cologne  about  the  close  of  the  century.  We  possess 
by  him  the  largest  engraved  work  of  German  origin  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  six  folio  plates  forming  a  continu- 
ous series  picturing  the  scene  of  the  war  with  Switzerland 
of  1499,  which  was  so  unfortunate  for  Germany.  The 
landscape  is  feeble,  the  hills  almost  childish,  but  the 
groups  of  figures  are  full  of  life,  drawn  with  a  keen 
observation  of  military  tactics.  At  the  same  time  the 
dimensions  of  the  figures  are  much  too  large  in  proportion 
to  the  landscape  surroundings.  The  whole  is  a  topical 
subject  thrown  off  hastily  by  a  practised  hand.  By  the 
same  artist  is  a  pack  of  cards  consisting  of  round  plates, 
the  suits  being  marked  by  splendidly  drawn  hares,  butter- 
flies, and  flowers  (fig.  23).  His  sacred  and  profane  subjects 
are  of  uneven  value.  The  dialect  of  the  German  inscriptions 
on  the  .Swiss  War  is  that  of  Cologne,  and  this  origin  is 
further  indicated  by  the  inscription,  "  Salve  felix  Colonia" 
on  the  first  plate  of  his  round  pack  of  cards,  and  also 
by  the  circumstance  that  the  Masters  S.  and  Jacob  Binck 
copied  some  of  his  engravings. 


NICOLAUS    ALEXANDER    MAIR  45 

The  engravers  of  this  period,  who  from  the  style  and 
nature  of  their  work  may  be  assumed  to  have  belonged 
to  Eastern  Franconia  and  to  Bavaria,  are  almost  entirely 
anonymous,  appearing  as  independent  craftsmen,  whose 
work  bears  only  a  loose  connection  with  the  existing  schools 

of  painting.     The  Master  Ht»ttt/'  ^^ho  without  sufficient 


\i['m 


evidence  has  been  identified  as  Hans  von  Windsheim, 
a  goldsmith  shown  by  documentary  evidence  to  have 
worked  in  Munich,  proves  himself  an  artist  of  greal 
originality.  By  him  we  have  some  large  compositions 
full  of  figures  and  fine  in  technique,  the  features  being 
vigorously  expressed;  three  of  these  bear  the  dates  1481 
and  1482.  Judging  by  the  hard  metallic  use  of  the 
burin,  the  engraver  may  well  have  been  a  goldsmith. 
To  a  similar  class  belongs  the  engraver  with  the  mark 
B  CfcfC,  dependent  on  Schongauer,  whose  type  of  Virgin 
he  has  adopted,  with  the  addition  of  an  individuality  and 
charm  of  his  own.  He  must,  nevertheless,  be  counted  as 
belonging  to  the  School  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 

A  series  of  engravings  bearing  the  signature  MAIR 
are  in  all  probability  the  work  of  the  painter  Nicolaus 
Alexander  Mair,  who  has  been  identified  as  living  at 
Landshut  between  149 1  and  1541.  In  spite  of  the  provin- 
cial origin  of  his  art,  Mair's  engravings  deserve  attention 
for  their  originality  and  the  interest  of  detail  that  en- 
livens them.  Some  of  his  largest  plates,  rather  dry  and 
empty,  but  showing  considerable  regularity  and  skill  of 
technique,  are  happily  conceived  scenes  from  life,  such 
as  the  plate  that  pictures  a  gay  assemblage  of  young  men 
and  women.  The  spectre  of  Death  that  stalks  over  the 
walls  of  the  garden,  all  unseen  by  the  company,  gives 
to  the  picture  the  allegorical  and  moral  motive  of  youthful 


46 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


Fig.  24.     The  Master  y\    )  :  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catharine  (detail 


pleasure  and  the  nearness  of  death,  for  which  the  art  of 
this  time  loved  to  find  ever  fresh  variations. 


THE    MASTER   M.  Z.  47 

Matthaus  Zasinger  is  the  name  given,  without  sound 
reason,  to  the  engraver  with  the  monogram  /\~j,  ^vho 
belongs,  at  an}'  rate,  to  the  Bavarian  or  Eranconian  School. 
He  is  only  a  mediocre  draughtsman,  his  figures  are  weak 
and  loose-jointed,  but  his  execution  is  fine,  tender,  and 
pleasing.  Perhaps  originally  a  goldsmith,  he  may  have 
gathered  artistic  influences  from  various  sides.  Some- 
thing in  him  is  reminiscent  of  Baldung  Grien,  and  he 
seems  to  have  known  the  work  of  Jacopo  de'  Barbari ; 
moreover,  he  is  influenced  by  Diirer's  early  work,  as 
appears  in  his  landscape  backgrounds.  Two  of  his  prints 
that  are  most  full  of  figures, '  A  Tourney,'  and  '  A  Festival ' 
bear  the  date  1500.  Finer  in  treatment  than  these  is  a 
'Virgin  at  the  Spring'  executed  in  1501  under  Italian 
influence.  A  charming  little  genre  print,  'The  Embrace 
in  the  Room,'  belongs  to  1503.  A  nude  female  figure 
standing  on  a  skull — an  allegorical  rendering  of  the 
transiency  of  life — recalls  Diirer's  great  'Fortune.'  His 
largest  plate  is  a  '  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catharine '  (fig.  24),  full 
of  figures.  Thirty-two  plates  in  all  by  the  Master  M,  Z. 
are  now  known. 

That  sculptors  also  employed  the  burin  need  not 
appear  strange  at  a  time  when  the  most  widely  differing 
aits  and  crafts  were  fi-equently  practised  side  by  side  in 
the  same  workroom.  The  Nuremberg  sculptor,  Veit  Stoss 
(born  about  1450,  died  at  Nuremberg  1533),  is  mentioned 
in  contemporary  records  as  an  engraver,  and  the  en- 
gravings ascribed  to  him  with  the  signature  f  ^  ^  show 

so  much  the  character  of  his  sculptures,  that  on  this 
evidence  alone  his  authorship  of  them  can  be  accepted 
with  scarcely  any  doubt.  The  somewhat  exaggerated  but 
vigorous   style   of  drawing  and  the  stiff  handling  of  the 


48 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


graver  reveal  the  hand  of  the  sculptor,  whose  work  on 
the  copper  plate  does  not  conceal  the  touch  of  the 
amateur.  By  another  sculptor,  Jorg  Syrlin,  of  Ulm 
(who  died  probably  in  1491),  we  have  one  engraving, 
a  strong  piece  of  work,  representing  a  '  Baptismal 
Font.' 


Fig.  25.     Veil  Stoss  :  Virgin  and  Child  (detail). 


To  the  Schongauer  tradition  clings  the  engraver  with 
the  monogram  ^(3,  identified,  again  without  trustworthy 
authority,  as  Albert  Glockenton,  and  taken  to  be  one  of 
the  family  of  illuminators  of  this  name,  who  lived  at 
Nuremberg  about  1500.  The  Master  A.  G.  used  the 
burin    delicately,  and   copied  with   skill  the  large  '  Christ 


WENZEL  VON  OLOMUCZ  49 

bearing  the  Cross '  and  *  The  Death  of  the  Virgin  '  by  Schon- 
gauer.  A  Passion  series,  executed  in  the  spirit  of  the 
latter  master,  but  with  traces  of  considerable  individuality^ 
is  worthy  of  attention,  although  somewhat  narrow  and 
limited  in  its  conception.  The  circumstance  that  the 
Master  A.  G.  supplied  engraved  coats-of-arms  and  a 
Crucifixion  scene  to  three  Prayer-books  printed  at 
Wiirzburg  between  1479  and  1483  gives  at  least  some 
indication  of  the  time  of  his  activity.  Somewhat  related 
to  him,  but  a  still  weaker  imitator  of  Schongauer,  is  the 
engraver  VC/  /<  H'  who,  without  sufficient  evidence,  has 
been  placed  at  Munich  and  named  Wolf  Hammer. 

Another  artist  of  distinct  originality  signs  his  ten  known 
engravings  with  •  L"<XAv»-  He  works  with  a  spirited,  power- 
ful point,  and  a  free  style  of  drawing,  indicating  the  hand 
of  a  painter  much  rather  than  that  of  a  goldsmith.  He 
engraved,  however,  in  1492,  a  jewelled  ornament  for 
feminine  costume.  Powerful  in  imagination  is  the  remark- 
able '  Temptation  of  Christ'  (fig.  26),  full  of  fine  feeling  the 
'  Flight  to  Egypt,'  and  charming  invariably  is  the  Virgin 
of  this  unknown  engraver,  who  without  doubt  must 
have  been  a  master  of  unusual  importance. 

An  engraver  who  signs  his  name  V/enzel  von  Olomucz 
(Olmiitz)  on  a  careful  copy  of  Schongauer's  '  Death  of 
the  Virgin,'  produced  numerous  copies  of  Schongauer, 
Diirer,  and  other  masters,  which  he  usually  signed  with 
a  W.  in  place  of  his  whole  name.  The  Master  W.  appears 
to  possess  scarcely  any  artistic  individuality,  and,  so  far 
as  can  be  judged  by  his  existing  plates,  is  a  mere  copyist. 
A  mistake  has  been  made  by  recent  art  critics  (by 
Thausing,  for  instance,  in  his  "Life  of  Diirer")  in  at- 
tributing the  monogram  W.  to  Diirer's  teacher,  Michel 
Wohlgemuth. 

4 


so  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

It  was  by  Albrecht  Diirer  that  the  art  of  engraving 
was  first  raised  to  such  a  height  of  development  that  it 
might  claim  a  position  side  by  side  with  painting.  Diirer 
was  the  first  to  succeed  in  clearly  rendering  with  the 
burin  the  natural  distribution  of  light  and  shade,  the 
peculiarities  of  surface  texture,  its  roughness  or  smooth- 
ness, hardness  or  softness,  above  all  in  giving  expression  to 
spiritual  significance.  If  wc  follow  DiJrer's  artistic  career, 
we  find  that  the  phases  through  which  the  art  of  engraving 
passed  before  his  time  are  repeated  briefly  in  his  develop- 
ment ;  but  Diirer,  with  clear  intuition,  on  arriving  at  the 
point  where  his  predecessors  came  to  a  stand,  sought  and 
attained  new  aims  for  his  art.  His  father,  a  goldsmith, 
probably  of  German  birth,  had  emigrated  from  Hungary 
and  settled  at  Nuremberg  in  1455.  Albrecht  Diirer,  his 
third  child,  was  born  in  1471,  entered  at  first  the  gold- 
smith's workshop,  later  became  a  pupil  of  the  Nuremberg 
painter,  Michel  Wohlgemuth,  and  started  to  travel  in  1490, 
returning  in  1494.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Agnes 
Frey,  and  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  his  native 
town,  which  he  left  only  twice  for  any  length  of  time, 
staying  in  Venice  from  1505  to  1507,  and  in  1520  and 
1 52 1  travelling  in  the  Netherlands.  His  years  of  training 
in  the  goldsmith's  workshop  must  have  given  him  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  graver,  and  probably 
before  starting  on  his  travels  he  had  made  some  essays 
in  engraving.  Old  tradition,  supported  by  a  comparison 
with  his  early  drawings,  gives  as  Diirer's  first  individual 
engravings  '  The  Great  Courier,*  of  which  only  three 
examples  are  known  (Vienna,  Dresden,  Paris),  and  *  The 
Violent  Old  Man,'  an  evil-looking  monster  trying  to 
subdue  a  woman. 

In    both    of  these    the    use   of  the  burin  is    loose  and 


52 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


heavy,  the  drawing  hard  and  uncertain.  These  prints 
do  not  yet  bear  Diirer's  mark,  which  consisted  originally 
of  a  separate  A  and  D,  later  was  formed  JR  ,  and 
finally,  about  1497,  took  the  shade  of  the  world-famous 
TT .  Durer  at  first  placed  his  signature,  like  the 
German  masters  of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the  middle 
of    the    lower    margin    of    his    picture ;    later,    like    the 


Fig.  27.     AlbiLcht  Diircr  :  'I'hc  Holy  Family  with  the  Grasshopper  (detail). 


Italians,  set  it  frequently  on  a  tablet,  or  drew  it  in  per- 
spective on  the  ground,  a  stone,  or  elsewhere.  It  was 
after  1503  that  Diirer  first  began  to  date  his  plates  with 
frequency. 

During  the  last  ten  years  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  in 
the  years  immediately  following  1500,  Diirer  was  an  active 
worker  with  the  burin,  and  in  the  prints  of  this  period  can 
be  traced  clearly  the  formation  of  his  art  and  of  his  tech- 
nique.    '  The  Holy  Family  with  the  Grasshopper '  (fig.  27), 


ALBRECHT   DURER  53 

with  its  imperfect  drawing  and  harsh,  uncertain  engraving, 
may  be  placed  about  1494  or  1495.  Following  this,  but 
with  more  finish  in  the  work,  come  the  '  Seven  Soldiers  ' 
and  the  '  Turk  on  Horseback '  ;  and  finally,  in  1497,  a 
distinct  advance  is  marked  by  the  '  Four  Witches,'  whose 
figures  show  that  Diirer,  even  at  this  period,  departing 
from  the  practice  of  his  German  contemporaries,  must 
have  made  studies  from  the  nude.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  now  striving  to  find  a  means  of  so  handling  and 
arranging  his  lines  as  to  express  the  modelling  of  the 
figure  and  the  form  of  muscles.  In  his  'Lovers  Walking  ' 
— a  man  and  a  woman  wandering  at  ease  in  a  landscape, 
while  Death  lurks  behind  a  tree — Diirer  aims  at  greater 
strength  and  harmony  of  treatment,  and  appears  to  have 
overcome  the  harshness  and  unevenness  which  so  far  have 
characterised  his  work  with  the  graver.  To  this  same 
period,  about  1 500,  may  also  be  assigned  '  The  Prodigal 
Son,'  which  shows  clearly  Diirer's  attempt  to  make  the 
idea  of  his  composition  and  his  manner  of  technique 
work  together  in  harmonious  union.  In  this,  and  in  its 
spiritual  significance,  '  The  Prodigal  Son  '  ranks  as  Diirer's 
masterpiece.  The  growth  of  his  style  towards  more  freedom 
and  lightness  is  shown  in  his  '  St.  Jerome  in  Penitence,' 
'  The  Rape  of  Amymone,'  and  lastly  in  his  '  Jealousy,' 
the  plate  called  by  Diirer  himself  '  The  Great  Hercules,' 
which  marks  absolutely  the  close  of  his  first  period.  In 
'  The  Great  Hercules '  he  shows  complete  mastery  over 
his  burin,  and  his  technique  now  surpasses  that  of  all 
his  predecessors.  The  modelling  of  the  nude  bodies  is 
expressed  softly  and  clearly,  with  fine  sense  of  form,  by 
means  of  complicated  sets  of  lines,  and  the  separation 
of  the  large  figures  from  the  landscape  background  is 
admirably  effected.     That   Diirer  handled   his  tools  with 


54  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

absolute  consciousness  of  the  end  he  wished  to  obtain 
is  shown  by  the  incomplete  proof  impression  of  the 
'Hercules'  at  Berlin  (a  second  proof  is  in  the  Albertina, 
at  Vienna).  He  renders  the  outlines  of  the  composition 
lightly  with  the  dry-point,  working  single  parts  here 
and  there  to  a  full  finish,  and  leaving  spaces  next  to 
them  absolutely  white.  The  so-called  '  Hercules,'  which 
is  based  on  an  uncertain  legend  of  classical  mythology, 
may  be  placed  about  1500.  Its  idea  is  partly  borrowed 
from  an  early  Italian  engraving,  '  Orpheus  beaten  to 
Death  by  the  Lycian  Women'  (Pass.  V.,  p.  74,  no.  120). 
The  period  to  which  the  works  so  far  mentioned  belong 
shows  DiJrer  striving  with  continual  advancement  in 
technique  to  reproduce  with  his  burin  surface  lines  and 
curves  with  more  completeness  than  the  art  of  engraving 
before  his  time  attained.  Now,  however,  he  is  determined 
to  make  his  copper  plate  capable  of  imparting  the  ten- 
derest  gradations  of  light  and  shade,  closely  and  compactly 
as  in  a  picture,  by  the  sole  means  of  black  and  white.  In 
'The  Virgin  with  the  Monkey'  this  pictorial  tendency 
becomes  for  the  first  time  clearly  apparent,  yet  even  here 
dark  shadows  stand  in  contrast  to  the  high  lights  without 
any  intermediary  half-tones,  and  the  treatment  appears 
somewhat  hard  and  metallic.  A  softer  method  of  execution 
is  adopted  in  the  print  usually  known  as  '  The  Great 
Fortune,'  by  Diirer  himself  called  '  The  Nemesis,'  a 
print  whose  meaning  still  awaits  complete  interpre- 
tation. In  this  the  treatment  is  softer  and  more  free; 
the  most  delicate  reflected  lights  on  the  skin  of  the  nude 
winged  figure  are  rendered  in  carefully  finished  detail, 
while  the  landscape  beneath  reveals  an  intimate  appre- 
ciation of  nature.  While  in  the  '  Hercules '  and  '  The 
Virgin   with  the  Monkey'   Italian   influences  make  them- 


ALBRECHT   DURER 


55 


selves  felt,  the  '  Nemesis '  and  the  works  immediately 
following  it  show  a  clear  and  conscious  departure  from 
all    Italian    tradition  and  the   entrance  of  pure  Northern 


Fig.  28.     Albrtcht  Diircr  :  The  Virgin  willi  the  Bird. 


art.  Following,  probably,  close  after  the  plate  ju.st  men- 
tioned, comes  Diirer's  largest  engraving,  the' St.  Eustace,' 
again  with  rich  variety  of  landscape  and  carefully  executed 


56  GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 

detail.  While  in  the  earlier  engravings,  the  '  Hercules'  for 
instance,  the  ground  was  indicated  by  single  sets  of  lines, 
making  it  appear  like  ice,  Durer  now  has  acquired  the  power 
of  representing  by  complicated  work  all  the  natural  variety 
of  the  soil.  This  desire  of  reproducing  realistically  all 
the  inherent  peculiarities  of  the  object  represented, 
appears  most  obviously  in  '  The  Coat  of  Arms  with  the 
Skull,'  of  1503.  On  the  steel  helmet,  that  forms  the 
central  point  of  interest  in  the  picture,  Diirer  has  concen- 
trated all  his  skill  to  set  before  our  eyes  the  gleam  of 
polished  metal  in  glistening  actuality.  The  realistic 
method  of  expressing  texture  is  displayed  here  in  its 
purest  and  finest  form.  In  the  'Adam  and  Eve'  of  1504 -jj^ 
Diirer  solves  the  problem  of  how  to  treat  the  nude  in 
a  different  and  more  refined  way  than  in  the  '  Nemesis.' 
He  succeeds  here  in  clearly  displaying,  by  means  of 
delicate  variations  of  technique,  the  difference  between  the 
nude  surface  of  the  male  and  female  figures.  This  keen 
observation  of  nature,  made  effective  by  masterly  skill 
in  technique,  was  the  fruit  of  Durer's  studies  of  the 
anatomical  proportions  of  the  human  form.  In  1504  the 
Venetian  painter,  Jacopo  de'  Barbari,  was  staying  in 
Nuremberg  ;  and  it  is  an  accepted  fact  that  from  an 
earlier  meeting  with  this  painter  Diirer  received  his  first 
inducement  to  make  a  scientific  study  of  the  human 
form  and  the   proportions  of  the   human  figure. 

To  I  505  belong  the  two  engravings,  '  The  Great  Horse ' 
and  '  The  Little  Horse,'  intended  perhaps  by  Diirer  to 
establish  a  canon  of  proportions  for  the  horse — the  most 
important  of  animals  for  the  artist — as  he  had  attempted 
to  do  in  his  '  Adam  and  Eve '  for  the  human  figure.  If 
this  idea  be  right,  'The  Great  Horse'  represents  the  type 
of  the  heavy  war-horse,  whose  destiny  is  further  indicated 


ALBRECHT    DIRER  57 

by  the  soldier  in  full  armour  standing  by,  while  '  The 
Little  Horse '  is  the  type  of  light  riding-horse,  whose 
speed  is  symbolised  by  the  figure  standing  near,  with 
wings  like  those  of  Mercury — perhaps  Mercury  himself 

Diirer's  visit  to  Venice  for  a  year  and  a  half,  from  i  505 
to  1507,  and  his  completion  of  some  large  work  for  wood- 
cuts after  his  return,  did  not  permit  him  to  enter  on  any 
extensive  undertakings  in  the  field  of  engraving.  After 
his  return  he  began  his  Passion  series,  the  first  plate  of 
which,  'The  Man  of  Sorrows,'  is  dated  1507.  In  15 12 
Diirer  concentrated  his  attention  on  bringing  this  work 
nearer  to  completion,  for  no  less  than  ten  plates  of  the 
engraved  Passion  bear  this  date;  and  in  15 13  he  added 
the  sixteenth  and  final  print—'  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  healing 
the  Sick  at  the  Gate  of  the  Temple.'  The  execution  has 
obviously  suffered  by  these  delays  ;  and  while  the  Passion 
series  in  no  way  belies  the  masterly  skill  of  its  designer, 
at  the  same  time  it  lacks  the  freshness  of  conception 
which  is  so  marked,  for  instance,  in  the  '  Little  Passion  ' 
on  wood.  During  this  period,  from  1507  to  15 13,  Diirer 
worked  only  on  plates  of  a  small  size.  Among  the  most 
important  of  these  is  perhaps  '  The  Crucifixion,' of  1508, 
a  finely  conceived  composition,  with  the  landscape  finished 
in  delicate  detail.  It  is  no  mere  chance  that  both  the 
night  pieces  of  the  engraved  Passion — '  Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives  '  and  '  The  Betrayal  in  the  Garden  ' — were 
executed  in  the  same  year. 

The  subtle,  painter-like  treatment  employed  by  Diirer 
in  his  '  Adam  and  Eve '  of  1 504,  and  in  his  '  Birth  of 
Christ'  of  the  same  period,  he  abandoned  largely  in  the 
'Great'  and  'Little  Horse,'  and  still  more  decidedly  in 
the  Passion  series,  having  learned  b}'  experience  that  his 
plates,  when  too  delicately  executed,  could  yield    only  a 


58 


GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


moderate  number  of  good  impressions.  About  1505  he 
made  a  change  in  his  technique,  and  now  worked  on  the 
copper  with  deeply  cut,  regular  lines,  giving  it  greater 
power  of  resistance  against  the  attacks  made  by  the 
process  of  printing.  With  all  its  polished  execution, 
the  very  sharpness  and  cleanness  of  the  line-work  in  this 
kind   of  treatment   easily  produces   a   cold    and    metallic 


1  1!^   29      AlbiLLlit  I>urti      riiL  \  II gin  with  the  Peai  (dctailj 


effect,  which,  to  take  an  instance,  is  particularly  noticeable 
in  '  The  Virgin  with  the  Pear'  (fig.  29)  of  151 1.  Diirer  could 
not  get  away  from  the  fact  that  here  lay  one  of  the  pitfalls 
of  the  engraver's  art,  and  with  tact  and  skill  he  discovered 
a  means  of  combining  fine  quality  of  printing  with  dura- 
bility of  the  plate.  The  idea  of  ensuring  durability  for 
the  plate  by  retouching,  a  method  thoroughly  unsound 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view,  but  one  known  by  his 
predecessors  and  still  further  practised  by  his  followers, 
seems  to  have  been  treated  by  Diircr  with  absolute  disdain. 


DURER'S   ETCHINGS  59 

Even    after   his   death    no  strange  hand  ventured  on  the 
task  of  restoring  the  master's  plates. 

Pondering  over  new  means  of  expression,  and  perhaps 
also  attempting  to  replace  the  slow  work  of  the  burin 
by  some  method  of  more  speedy  execution,  Diirer  con- 
ducted between  1510  and  15 16  a  series  of  technical  ex- 
periments. First  of  all,  he  had  recourse  to  the  dry-point 
needle,  which  had  been  handled  before  him  with  such 
splendid  results  by  the  enigmatic  Master  of  1480.  Diirer's 
first  plate  executed  entirely  in  dry-point  is  the  '  Veronica 
with  the  Handkerchief,'  of  15 10,  of  which  only  two  copies 
(at  Dresden  and  the  Albertina  at  Vienna)  are  now  in 
existence  ;  and  this  was  closely  followed  by  '  The  Man  of 
Sorrows'  in  15 12  (B.  21),  and  by  another  print  of  the 
same  period,  the  *  St.  Jerome  by  the  Willow.'  In  this 
last  print  Diirer  has  handled  the  dry-point  needle 
with  all  the  freedom  of  a  pencil,  obtaining  a  most 
charming  result.  He  appears  at  this  period  to  have 
broken  through  the  barriers  of  sixteenth-century  art,  and 
to  have  revealed  a  noteworthy  spiritual  relationship  with 
Rembrandt,  the  greatest  master  after  his  time  to  place 
his  creations  on  the  copper  plate.  By  leaving  the  burr 
on  the  'St.  Jerome'  a  strong,  deep  black  tone  was  ob- 
tained that  lasted  for  only  very  few  impressions.  To 
judge  the  true  value  of  this  incomparable  plate  one  must 
have  before  one's  eyes  one  of  those  early  proofs  (before 
the  monogram)  in  the  possession  of  the  British  Museum 
and  the  Albertina.  From  his  work  with  dry-point  Diirer 
passed  on  to  pure  etching.  The  art  of  etching  on  iron 
with  ammoniac,  vitriol,  and  the  like  had  already  been 
practised  in  the  fifteenth  century  for  the  decoration  of 
armour  and  weapons.  The  employment  of  nitric  acid, 
essential    to   etching   on    copper,    was    in   Diirer's   time   a 


6o 


GERMAN    ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


secret  known 
only  to  a  few ; 
and  it  was  not 
until  after  the 
first  thirty  years 
of  the  sixteenth 
century  that  the 
use  of  '  aqua-for- 
tis '  passed  into 
common  know- 
ledge. Though 
Diirer,  in  his  ex- 
periments with 
etching,  had  one 
or  two  prede- 
cessors, such  as 
Daniel  Hopfer 
and  Urs  Graf,  }'et 
it  was  through 
him  that  etching 
received  the  first 
impulse  which 
brought  it  into 
vogue  as  an  art. 
Between  i  5 i 5 
and  1 518  DiJrer 
finished  five  etch- 
ings, made  on 
iron  plates  with 
apparently  im- 
perfect means. 
The  lines  are 
still     liarsh     and 


i\lljrcclit  iJiircr  :    llic  Landscape  with 
the  Great  Cannon  (detail). 


ETCHING   OX    IRON  6i 

coarse,   and   the   etcher    failed    to    obtain    refinement    of 
tone. 

'  The  Man  of  Sorrows  '  of  1 5 1 5  (B.  22),  unsuccessful  as  an 
etching,  was  followed  by  '  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives ' 
(B.  19),  in  which  the  coarse  effect  of  etching  on  iron 
appears  to  have  been  happily  employed  to  express  the 
night  scene  with  glaring  lights.  Two  other  somewhat 
unsuccessful  plates,  *  The  Sudarium  held  by  an  Angel '  and 
'  Pluto  and  Proserpine,'  were  followed  in  15  18  by  the  land- 
scape known  by  the  name  of  the  '  Great  Cannon '  (fig.  30). 
In  this  fine  composition,  that  recalls  the  landscapes  of 
Titian,  Diirer  discovered  a  broad,  sketchy  treatment 
admirably  suited  to  etching  in  iron  ;  but,  as  though  still 
unsatisfied  with  this  result,  he  now  abandoned  etching 
altogether.  In  spite  of  the  imperfections  which  he  may  have 
seen  in  this  class  of  work,  Diirer's  early  attempts  with 
the  dry-point,  and  again  with  etching,  were  not  wasted, 
for  they  were  the  preparation  for  the  developed  art  of 
etching  which  has  been  in  constant  use  from  his  time 
onwards.  The  years  during  which  Diirer  was  busied 
with  the  dry-point  and  with  etching  embrace  the  period 
of  his  finest  inventions  with  the  burin.  During  1513 
and  1 5 14  he  completed,  with  inconceivable  perseverance, 
no  fewer  than  eleven  plates,  among  them  the  three 
engravings  which  mark  the  pinnacle  of  his  achievement, 
and  are  chiefly  responsible  for  making  his  name  world- 
famous  —  '  The  Knight,  Death,  and  the  Devil,'  the 
'  Melancholia,'  and  '  St.  Jerome  in  his  Cell.'  The  technical 
treatment,  varying  in  all  three  cases,  is  in  perfect  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  the  idea.  The  fullest  palette  could  not 
have  expressed  more  forcibly  the  conception  which 
underlies  each  of  these  three  prints.  The-  mysterious 
composition  of  the  '  Melancholy  '  is  veiled  in    a   strange 


62  GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO  1528 

mystical  twilight.  The  comfortable  chamber  of  the  saint 
is  filled  with  warm  light  penetrating  its  remotest  angles  ; 
the  effect  of  the  flickering  rays  of  sunlight  shining  through 
the  round  leaded  panes  of  the  window  is  a  masterpiece 
in  itself  In  '  The  Knight,  Death,  and  the  Devil '  the  gleam 
of  the  polished  armour  that  fills  the  centre  of  the  picture 
was  a  matter  for  wonderment  to  Diirer's  contemporaries. 

The  uniformity  in  size  of  these  three  plates,  as  well 
as  their  common  time  of  origin,  permits  the  conjecture 
that  all  three  form  part  of  a  single  idea.  Varied  attempts 
have  been  made  to  interpret  the  shades  of  meaning  which 
supply  a  hidden  union  to  compositions  so  different.  To 
the  ordinary  beholder  of  Diirer's  own  time  the  three 
engravings  may  have  meant  simply  what  they  expressed 
on  their  surface.  The  '  St.  Jerome '  may  have  been  merely 
the  picture  of  a  much-honoured  saint  ;  the  second  figure 
a  knight,  who,  in  spite  of  death  and  the  devil,  rides 
courageously  through  a  murky  mountain  gorge ;  the 
third,  '  Melancholy,'  may  have  been  understood  at  that 
time  as  the  personification  of  philosophy,  pondering  and 
brooding  over  problems  of  human  science.  By  all  succeeding 
ages,  however,  it  has  been  assumed  that  in  Diirer's  inner 
consciousness  some  more  mystic  and  deeper  meaning  under- 
lay these  strange  works  of  art.  The  explanation  of  the  three 
engravings  as  three  of  the  four  Temperaments,  or  Com- 
plexions, into  which  the  humanistic  wisdom  of  the  day 
divided  mankind,  is  for  more  than  one  reason  insufficient. 
Possibly  in  these  compositions  we  may  recognise  personifi- 
cations of  the  three  cardinal  virtues  into  which  contemporary 
philosophers  divided  the  ethical  qualities  of  mankind. 
According  to  this  idea  '  Melancholy,'  who  is  winged 
because  meditation — the  flying  spirit  of  imagination,  as 
Diirer  calls  it — rises  high  above  the  earth,  is  the  repre- 


ALBRECHT    DURER  63 

scntation  of  the  power  of  human  intellect  {Virtutes 
intellectuales) ;  the  '  Knight '  stands  for  moral  strength 
(  Virtutes  Diorales)  ;  while  '  St.  Jerome '  is  the  type  of  the 
search  for  divine  knowledge  {^Virtutes  tJieologicales). 

The  fulness  of  Diirer's  artistic  power  is  displayed  in 
the  plates  engraved  about  15 13  and  15 14 — 'The  Virgin 
with  the  Tree  '  and  '  The  Sudarium  held  by  Two  Angels  ' — 
this  last  particularly  noteworthy,  because  in  it  the  ideal 
face  of  Christ,  created  by  Diirer  and  prevailing  ever  since 
his  day,  appears  for  the  first  time  ;  and  also  '  The  Virgin 
by  the  Wall,'  and  many  others.  A  series  of  figures  of 
the  Apostles  was  possibly  planned  as  a  continuation  of 
the  engraved  Passion.  The  '  Paul '  (fig.  31)  and  '  Thomas,' 
engraved  in  15 14,  were  followed  next  in  1523  by 
'Bartholomew'  and  'Simon,'  and  in  1526  by  'Philip.' 
This  series  remained  incomplete. 

This  period  of  active  creation  was  succeeded  by  a 
time  during  which  Diner's  engraving  yielded  the  first 
place  to  his  other  activities,  and  his  prints  appeared  at 
ever-lengthening  intervals.  In  15 18  he  finished  his  'Virgin 
crowned  by  Two  Angels,'  showing  already  the  somewhat 
affected  expression  of  the  later  Madonnas  ;  and,  apparently 
also  about  this  time,  he  produced  his  smallest  engraving, 
the  so-called  '  Maximilian's  Sword-hilt.'  According  to 
tradition  this  was  a  picture  of  the  Crucifixion,  contained 
in  a  circle  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  engraved 
on  a  golden  plate,  which  was  intended  to  adorn  the  pommel 
of  a  sword  made  for  the  Emperor.  The  sureness  of 
hand  and  eye,  which  in  so  tiny  a  space  could  preserve  the 
feeling  of  natural  form  free  from  all  semblance  of  arti- 
ficiality, remains  a  matter  for  lasting  astonishment. 

Diirer  may  be  considered  the  originator  of  the  engraved 
portrait.     German  and  Italian    engravers  of  the  fifteenth 


64 


GERMAN   ENGRAVING   TO   1528 


century  had,  it  is  true,  occasionally  produced  portraits, 
such  as  those  of  the  above-mentioned  Suabian  engraver 
'W^B  ;  but  it  was  through  Diirer  that  the  portrait  first 


Albrecht  Diirer  :  The  Apostle  Paul. 


became  an  important  and  regularly  practised  branch  of 
engraving.  In  this  respect  the  woodcut  was  to  some 
extent  in  advance  of  engraving.     \\c  have  six  encrraved 


ALBRECHT   DURER 


65 


^.:3  „^  .  .  i.^.    .^  ^^T^OA\ANAE'ECCLAE*Ti^^AN:. 

CHRY^OGONi'PBRCARDINA' 

-..    -^    ^-    >..  ~^^y/   >A\AGVN'AC'7V\AGDE'ARCHi'- 
^W"  ^^S'-^i^-f  /    EPS 'ELECTOR IA\TE-PRiA\:AS 
ri  V^'^f^T'^^'i  {k  AD^UN^HALBER'MARCH^ 

t  ^M&kMW^  M-^  .-s^:^^  BRANDENBVilGEN^iS 


i^ic^OCVLO^lv^ic^ILLE^GENAvy  ^  SIO  i 
I  OKKi  FEREBAT  ? 

I  Anno  3-ETATi^i^jvEc^xxiXi 

^    A^  -  D   •  X-I-X  ♦      

Fig.  32.     Albrecht  Durer  :    Portrait  of  Cardinal  Albrecht  von  Brandenburg. 


66        ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   TO    1528 

portraits  in  all  by  Diirer,  all  of  them  finished  between 
1 5 19  and  1526.  The  series  is  opened  by  the  lifelike, 
full-face  portrait  of  Albert  von  Brandenburg  (fig.  32), 
Cardinal  of  Mainz.  A  second  portrait  of  this  keen 
patron  of  the  arts,  in  profile,  with  the  head  to  the  right, 
was  made  by  Diirer  in  1523.  Diirer  had  met  the  Cardinal 
at  the  Augsburg  Diet  of  1518.  The  features  of  his 
old  patron,  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Saxony,  whose  por- 
trait he  had  also  painted,  were  perpetuated  in  1524  on 
copper,  with  a  noteworthy  Latin  inscription.  Frederick's 
portrait  is  the  finest  of  the  series,  perhaps  because  handled 
by  Diirer  with  greater  sympathy  than  the  rest,  and 
is  obviously  true  to  life.  It  was  followed  in  1526  by 
the  portrait  of  his  friend  Willibald  Pirckheimer,  and  in 
the  same  year  by  the  profile  head  of  Philip  Melancthon. 
During  his  visit  to  the  Netherlands  Diirer  had  made 
a  sketch  in  charcoal  of  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam.  At 
the  scholar's  urgent  request  he  engraved  this  portrait 
four  years  later  at  home  in  Nuremberg — the  largest 
engraved  portrait  by  Diirer  which  we  possess.  The  im- 
pression of  Erasmus's  personality  must  have  weakened 
by  lapse  of  time ;  and  for  what  the  work  lacked  in 
immediate  freshness  Diirer  sought  to  compensate  by 
careful  finish.  The  arrangement  of  the  figure  of  Erasmus 
seated  at  his  writing-table  to  the  extreme  right,  and 
his  surroundings,  with  so  many  accessories  of  books  etc., 
produce  the  impression  that  Diirer,  in  his  idea  for  the 
engraving,  was  influenced  by  one  of  Holbein's  portraits 
of  Erasmus.  He  may  have  seen  one  of  these  at  the 
scholar's  house  at  Rotterdam.  If  this  were  the  case,  it 
would  be  the  single  instance  of  any  contact,  however 
indirect,  between  Diirer  and  the  other  great  German 
master  of  his  time. 


ALBRECHT   DURER  67 

Diirer's  last  years  were  occupied  by  scientific  studies 
more  than  by  art  ;  and  finally  an  illness,  the  first  traces 
of  which  had  appeared  in  the  Netherlands,  brought  his 
life  to  a  close  on  April  6th,   1528, 

If  we  study  Diirer's  engraved  work  as  a  whole,  it 
reveals  itself  as  the  life-work  of  a  sublime  genius  carried 
out  on  an  almost  preconceived  plan,  flawless  and  full  of 
truth,  like  a  perfect  work  of  art. 


II 

ENGRAVING  IN  ITALY  TO  THE  MIDDLE 
OF   THE   SIXTEENTH   CENTURY 

THE  beginnings  of  Italian  engraving  are  wrapped  in 
as  much  darkness  as  is  its  origin  in  the  countries 
north  of  the  Alps.  Early  engraved  work  in  Italy  scarcely 
ever  displays  the  signature  of  an  artist  or  a  date  ;  and 
plates  which  from  their  criideness  or  the  simplicity  of  their 
execution  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  first  offspring  of  the 
art  in  Italy,  supply  no  indication  of  the  time  or  the  place 
of  their  origin.  Vasari's  tale  of  the  Florentine  goldsmith, 
Maso  Finiguerra,  having  discovered  in  1450  the  method  of 
printing  engraved  plates  must  be  banished  to  the  domain 
of  studio  legend.  The  only  real  truth  appears  to  be  that 
the  first  engravers  in  Italy,  as  probably  was  also  the  case 
in  Germany,  were  goldsmiths  by  profession.  It  is  possible, 
but  by  no  means  an  absolute  certainty,  that  the  secret  of 
printing  engraved  plates  passed  into  Italy  from  Germany. 
Primitive  Italian  engravings  consist  usually  of  hard  and 
heavy  outlines,  dug  deeply  into  the  metal.  Inside  these 
outlines  the  shadows  are  expressed,  or  as  a  rule  simply 
suggested,  by  a  few  sets  of  oblique  lines  laid  evenly  and 
without  cross-hatching.  This  modelling  with  straight 
sloping  lines  remained  for  a  considerable  time  a  character- 
istic peculiarity  of  Italian  engraving.  It  corresponds  to 
the    method   employed    by  the   early    Italian    painters   in 

68 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


69 


^'g-  33-     Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century  :   Portrait  (reduced) 


70  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

making  drawings  with  pen  or  pencil.  At  a  later  period 
the  lines  were  laid  more  regularly,  the  execution  became 
more  tender,  and  the  shadows  were  more  frequently 
expressed  by  cross-hatchings.  Finally  the  German  style 
of  engraving  began  to  exert  an  influence  on  Italian  artists, 
who  now  began  to  render  shadows  and  details  with  more 
systematic  cross-hatching  and  with  much  greater  freedom 
of  line. 

The  engravers  of  the  early  period  in  Italy  in  most 
cases  probably  borrowed  their  subjects  from  pictures  or 
drawings  by  contemporary  painters.  While  they  followed 
the  work  of  the  different  schools,  they  nevertheless  treated 
in  a  fairly  arbitrary  manner  not  only  the  composition,  but 
the  actual  style  of  their  examples.  Only  in  rare  instances, 
therefore,  can  the  anonymous  engravings  of  the  fifteenth 
century  in  Italy  be  assigned  to  any  limited  period  or  any 
particular  school.  The  dependence  of  engraving  upon 
painting  is  from  the  first  a  predominant  feature  in  Italian 
art.  At  the  same  time  there  is  no  absolute  lack  of  pure 
painter-etchers,  for  in  many  workshops  painting  and  gold- 
smith's work  were  practised  side  by  side. 

Vasari's  account,  which  has  been  mentioned  above,  places 
the  discovery  of  the  art  of  engraving  about  1450,  but  the 
earliest  certain  date  on  any  engraving  executed  in  Italy  is 
first  supplied  by  a  series  of  engraved  illustrations  for  a 
book  printed  at  Florence  in  1477,  "  El  Monte  Sancto  di  Dio  " 
(God's  Holy  Mountain).  It  contains  three  pictures  of 
religious  import — particularly  noteworthy  being  the  plate 
of  '  Our  Lord  with  the  Mandorla  '  (an  acorn-shaped  halo) — 
all  of  them  finely  conceived  and  marking  immense  strides 
in  technique,  which  can  only  be  the  result  of  long  previous 
practice  in  the  art  of  engraving.  In  actual  fact  Italian 
engravings  are  known  whose  primitive  character  and  style 


SANDRO   BOTTICELLI  71 

point  to  a  period  of  origin  long  before  1477.  Florence 
appears  to  have  been,  if  not  the  cradle,  at  any  rate  the 
earliest  centre  of  Italian  engraving.  Vasari  gives  credit,  as 
the  first  master  of  engraving,  to  a  Florentine  goldsmith, 
Baccio  Baldini,  and  relates  that  the  Florentine  painter, 
Sandro  Botticelli,  supplied  Baldini  with  subjects  for 
engraving,  and  that  Botticelli  himself  used  the  burin. 
There  is,  however,  no  documentary  Evidence  to  prove  that 
a  goldsmith,  Baccio  Baldini,  worked  at  Florence  in  the 
fifteenth  century  ;  but  the  nineteen  engravings  which  form 
the  illustrations  to  an  edition  of  Dante's  "  Divina  Commedia," 
printed  at  Florence  in  148 1,  are  without  any  doubt  after 
drawings  by  Sandro  Botticelli.  If  Baldini  is  the  engraver 
of  these  illustrations  he  must  have  been  a  very  indifferent 
artist.  The  plates  of  the  Dante  are  far  inferior  to  the 
older  illustrations  of  the  '  Monte  Sancto.'  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  nothing  more  is  known  of  Baldini  than  the 
scanty  and  vague  account  given  by  Vasari,  it  has  always 
been  the  custom  to  count  him  as  the  engraver  of  all  the  prints 
that  are  early-Florentine  in  style.  All  that  can  be  accepted 
as  really  certain  is  that  Botticelli's  style  exercised  great 
influence  on  Florentine  engraving  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
One  of  the  principal  plates  showing  the  influence  of  this 
master  is  the  '  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,'  consisting  of 
two  folio  sheets,  for  a  long  time  accepted  as  an  original 
work  by  Botticelli. 

Experimental  work  in  engraving,  at  times  showing 
distinct  power,  has  been  preserved  from  a  period  probably 
much  before  Botticelli,  such  for  example  as  the  fine 
profile  '  Head  of  a  Young  Girl '  (at  Berlin).  The  effect 
is  produced  by  little  more  than  an  outline  engraved  on 
the  copper  with  masterly  skill.  About  eight  other  en- 
gravings, which  may  be  seen  in  the  collections  in   Paris, 


72  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

London,  etc.,  show  a  like  treatment,  though  no  single  one 
of  them  has  attained  the  artistic  merits  of  the  profile  head 
at  Berlin. 

The  Italian  engravers  worked  much  more  frequently 
than  the  Germans  on  large-sized  plates.  This  fact, 
together  with  the  circumstance  that  Italian  prints 
were  not  sought  by  collectors  till  a  comparatively  late 
period,  supplies  the  probable  reason  for  the  great  rarity 
of  Italian  fifteenth-century  engravings.  Those  which  still 
survive  must  represent  only  a  fraction  of  the  original 
output.  The  anonymous  prints  now  known,  belonging 
to  the  Florentine  School  of  the  fifteenth  century,  number 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  in  all.  They  represent, 
without  doubt,  the  work  of  different  studios,  and 
probably  also  different  stages  in  the  work  of  single 
engravers.  The  lack  of  any  signature  on  these  plates 
makes  any  ascription  exceedingly  difficult.  It  is  only 
possible  to  indicate  certain  groups  of  work  that  meet  on 
common  ground.  Such,  for  example,  are  the  engravings 
which  are  named  after  the  former  possessor  of  the  largest 
number  of  known  examples,  the  '  Engravings  of  the  Otto 
Collection.'  They  form  a  series  consisting  mostly  of  alle- 
gorical and  ornamental  compositions.  The  impressions 
were  probably  intended  to  be  coloured,  and  then  employed 
for  the  decoration  of  wooden  boxes  and  similar  wares. 

Perhaps  by  the  same  hand  is  the  large  '  Conversion  of 
Paul '  in  the  Kunsthalle  at  Hamburg.  Closely  related  to 
this  are  '  The  Seven  Planets '  (British  Museum),  showing 
the  influence  of  the  stars  on  the  destinies  of  man.  These 
engravings  show  the  figures  in  cramped  attitudes,  the 
contours  marked  by  coarse  outlines,  and  the  shadows 
expressed  with  sets  of  very  fine  straight  lines. 

A  distinct  divergence  is   marked  by  another  group  of 


1"^   .  •■  1 1 ,1     g  «^ar-  -.=sa=."i 


Fig.  34.     Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  'century  :  The  Triumph 
of  Love  (detail). 

73 


74  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

engravings,  to  which  belong  'The  Six  Triumphs'  (after 
Petrarch's  description).  In  these  the  figures  are  more 
slender,  while  the  outlines  and  details  are  expressed  with 
strong,  but  more  regular  sets  of  lines,  without  any  scratchy 
treatment  (fig.  34).  Similar  to  these  is  the  folio-sized  print, 
'  The  Meeting  of  King  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.' 

A  series  of  fifteen  plates,  with  scenes  from  the  life 
of  Christ  and  of  the  Virgin,  is  perhaps  based  on  paintings 
by  Fra  Filippo  Lippi.  They  are  the  work  of  a  capable 
and  skilful  engraver  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
but  they  are  certainly  not  original  works  of  Lippi,  as 
has  been  maintained  by  Passavant. 

At  a  comparatively  early  period  German  engravings 
must  have  become  known  to  Italian  engravers.  Many 
primitive  Italian  prints  show  absolutely  no  trace  of 
German  influence,  but  the  engravings  of  the  Master  E.  S. 
of  1466  probably  came  to  the  knowledge  of  Florentine 
artists  soon  after  their  appearance.  This  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  a  series  of  twelve  engravings,  probably  of 
Florentine  origin,  representing  the  Twenty-four  Prophets 
(fig-  35)-  Their  unknown  designer  has  striven  to  imitate 
the  free  and  supple  technique  of  the  German  master, 
and  at  the  same  time  has  borrowed  ideas  for  the  figures 
of  his  apostles  from  the  position  and  arrangement  of  the 
figures  in  the  Apostle  series  of  the  Master  E.  S. 

Out  of  the  crowd  of  anonymous  engravers  some 
individually  known  masters  gradually  begin  to  emerge. 
One  of  the  first  is  the  painter  and  goldsmith,  Antonio 
Pollaiuolo  (1429 — 1498),  who  worked  in  Florence  and 
Rome.  One  of  his  two  large  engravings,  picturing 
fights  between  naked  men,  bears  the  signature  '  Opus 
Antonii  Pollaiuoli  Florentini,'  and  in  its  vigorous  drawing 
and  exaggerated    expression   of   muscles  shows  a  strong 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


75 


Fig.  35.      Florentine  engraver  of  the  fifteenth  century  :  The  Prophet  Daniel. 


76 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


correspondence  with 
the  painter's  style. 
That  the  Hne-work 
is  not  strictly  char- 
acteristic of  Pollai- 
uolo's  style  may  be 
explained  on  the 
ground  that  the 
artist  was  unused  to 
the  technique  of  en- 
graving ;  at  the  same 
time  it  must  remain 
doubtful  whether 
Pollaiuolo  was  the 
actual  engraver  of 
these  plates,  or  sim- 
ply the  originator 
of  the  compositions. 
The  goldsmith 
Cristoforo  Robetta 
(born  1462,  died  at 
Florence  after  1522) 
is  almost  the  only 
Florentine  engraver 
of  any  note  at 
this  period  who 
placed  his  signature 
on  some  of  his 
plates,  and  whose 
artistic  individifality 
can  be  defined  with  any  certainty.  Robetta  possessed  only 
mediocre  talent,  yet  he  makes  up  for  his  weakness  to  some 
extent    by  a  natural  freshness,  which  he  imparts   to   the 


Fig.  36.     Robetta  :   Poetry  and  Music  (detail), 


CRISTOFORO   ROBETTA  77 

formula;  of  the  Florentine  School.  His  engravings  arc  only 
rarely  from  his  own  original  designs  ;  as  a  rule  he  reproduces, 
with  more  or  less  freedom  of  rendering,  compositions  by 
the  masters  of  painting  who  surrounded  him.  Many  of 
his  prints  may  be  referred  with  certainty,  others  with 
probability,  to  paintings  or  designs  by  Filippino  Lippi, 
Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  Domenico  Ghirlandaio  and  others. 
In  his  technique  Robctta  strikes  a  mean  between  the 
style  of  the  older  Florentines  and  the  softer,  more  ex- 
pressive line  of  the  German  engravers.  His  principal 
work  is  an  '  Adoration  of  the  Kings,'  full  of  figures, 
probably  after  Filippino.  At  a  later  period  '  Adam  and 
Eve '  gave  him  the  excuse  for  an  interesting  genre  picture, 
spoiled  by  his  uncertainty  in  drawing  the  nude.  Of  his 
allegorical  and  mythological  prints  the  '  Poetry  and 
Music'  (B.  23,  after  a  group  in  fresco  by  Filippino  Lippi 
in  the  Church  of  Sta.  Maria  Novella  at  Florence)  may 
be  mentioned  as  particularly  fine  (fig.  36). 

A  noteworthy  series,  belonging  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
consists  of  fifty  octavo-sized  engravings  of  single  allegorical 
figures  (fig.  '}^7\  For  a  long  time  these  were  considered  as 
playi»g-cards  ("  Tarock-karten,"  B.  xiii.,  p.  120),  but  are 
now  much  more  correctly  explained  as  a  kind  of  illustrated 
manual  of  science.  The  figures  are  original  in  conception,  for 
the  most  part  thoroughly  natural,  skilfully  drawn,  and  put 
upon  the  copper  by  a  practised  hand.  The  series  certainly 
does  not  belong  to  the  Florentine  School,  to  which  it  was 
in  earlier  days  ascribed  ;  but  is  assigned  by  later  opinion, 
with  much  more  likelihood,  to  the  School  of  Ferrara,  Two 
sets  of  the  whole  series  are  in  existence,  probably  engraved 
at  about  the  same  period  ;  they  show  only  slight  differences, 
and  their  relation  to  one  another  still  awaits  complete 
explanation.      The  series,  however,  mentioned  by  Bartsch 


78 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


as  a  set  of  copies,  seems  to  possess  more  originality  than 
the  prints  described  by  the  same   writer  as  original. 
The  greatest  master  of  Italian  engraving  in  the  fifteenth 


Fig.  37-     A  Master  of  Fcrrara  (?)      From  the  series  of  the  so-called 
Playing-cards  (detail). 

century,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  painter-engravers  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  does 
not  belong  to  the  Florentine  School.  This  is  Andrea 
Mantegna,  of  Padua  (born  143 1,  died  at  Mantua  in  1506). 


ANDREA   MANTEGNA  79 

Old  tradition  ascribes  to  him  some  twenty-four  engravings, 
as  a  rule  large  in  size  and  full  of  figures  ;  and  though 
none  of  these  bears  his  signature,  their  style  points  to 
him  without  doubt  as  their  author.  The  technique  of 
these  engravings  is  particularly  original.  It  is  only  dis- 
tantly related  to  the  Florentine  manner,  and  is  completely 
different  from  that  of  Germany,  consisting  essentially  in 
the  application  to  the  copper  plate  of  the  method  of 
drawing  with  pen  on  paper,  practised  by  Mantegna  and 
artists  of  his  school.  The  outlines  are  firmly  expressed, 
and  the  modelling  is  produced  by  sets  of  straight  lines, 
running  obliquely,  growing  thicker  towards  the  shadows, 
and  tapering  to  a  point  towards  the  lights.  Cross-hatching 
is  never  employed.  The  work  gives  the  idea  of  a  sculp- 
tured bas-relief  rather  than  of  true  pictorial  effect.  His 
treatment  of  graver-work  as  a  means  of  imitating  a  free 
and  vigorous  drawing,  gives  Mantegna's  prints  a  broad  and 
bold  character,  quite  different  from  that  of  his  pictures 
with  their  carefully  finished  details ;  but  the  sharpness 
and  precision  of  line  is  common  to  both.  The  obvious 
differences  of  style  in  Mantegna's  engravings  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  they  were  executed  at  different 
periods.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  reject 
the  supposition  that  many  engravings  ascribed  to  Mantegna 
are  not  original,  but  the  work  of  pupils  or  assistants  in 
his  studio.  Perhaps  also  the  existing  replicas  of  some 
of  Mantegna's  engravings  are  school-work  of  this  type. 
Of  the  engravings  that  in  view  of  their  artistic  merit  and 
their  individuality  may  be  treated  as  probably  original  work, 
The  Seated  Virgin  bending  over  the  Holy  Child  '  (B.  8) 
is  slight  in  its  treatment,  and  is  possibly  an  earlier  and 
somewhat  unsuccessful  attempt.  The  latest  criticism  recog- 
nises also  as  original  work  the  '  Christ  between  SS.  Andrew 


8o  ENGRAVING   IN    ITALY 

and  Longinus  '  (B.  6) ;  '  The  Entombment '  (fig.  38  ;  B.  3), 
a  finely  designed  composition,  with  all  the  figures  strongly 
and  firmly  drawn  ;  '  The  Fight  of  the  Sea-Gods,'  probably 
depending  for  its  motive  on  classical  sculpture  ;  '  The 
Bacchanal  by  the  Wine-vat,'  also  borrowed  from  the 
antique  ;  and  the  unfinished  plate  of  '  The  Virgin  in  the 
Grotto,'  resembling  in  composition  a  picture  by  Mantegna 
in  the  Uffizi.  Of  the  four  engravings  of  '  The  Triumphal 
Procession  of  Julius  Caesar'  probably  only  two  (B.  11 
and  12)  were  executed  by  the  artist  himself.  While  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Mantegna  did  use  the  graver,, 
the  task  of  sifting  out  his  engravings  and  determining 
their  authenticity  has  been  made  extremely  problematic 
owing  to  the  circumstance  already  mentioned,  that  we 
possess  no  single  signed  print  from  his  hand.  The  freedom 
and  softness  of  the  line  in  many  of  the  artist's  prints 
has  given  rise  to  the  conjecture  that  Mantegna  did  not 
engrave  on  copper,  but  on  a  soft,  ductile  metal,  possibly 
zinc.  Independently  of  the  question  as  to  how  far  the 
engravings  of  Mantegna  are  absolutely  original,  the  fact 
remains  that  he  gave  to  engraving  an  entirely  new 
character,  depending  altogether  on  his  own  personal  style 
and  influence,  and  thereby  has  deserved  a  place  among 
the  greatest  of  original  engravers.  In  the  school  of 
engravers  which  followed  him  we  find  no  talent  that  is 
more  than  mediocre. 

Mantegna's  influence  may  at  the  first  have  held 
some  of  the  North  Italian  engravers  to  the  path  which 
he  had  trodden  ;  but  the  growth  of  Durer's  mighty 
influence  soon  caused  them  to  become  unfaithful  to  their 
master. 

Zoan  Andrea  may  be  regarded  as  a  pupil  of  Mantegna. 
Documentary  evidence  tells  of  him  as  an  engraver  who 


Fig.  3S.     Andrea  Mantegna :  The  Entombment  (detail). 

81  6 


82  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

hailed  from  Verona  and  came  into  touch  with  Mantegna 
at  Mantua.  It  may  be  conjectured  that  he  was  an 
assistant,  who  worked  under  Mantegna's  directions  on 
many  of  the  plates  ascribed  to  the  master  himself.  The 
darkness  in  which  Zoan  Andrea's  personality  is  wrapped 
is  made  all  the  deeper  by  the  fact  that  we  have  a  record — ■ 
not  indeed  particularly  definite — of  an  engraver  and 
woodcutter,  Zoan  Andrea  Vavassorc,  who  comes  to  light 
in  Venice  about  1500,  and  uses  the  signature  Z.  A.  or 
I.  A.  (Zuan  or  Zoan  being  the  Venetian  form  of  Johannes 
and  Giovanni).  Whether  this  Zoan  is  identical  with 
Mantegna's  assistant,  Zoan  Andrea,  cannot  yet  be  definitely 
decided.  The  engravings,  which  bear  a  monogram  repre- 
senting the  name  Zoan  Andrea,  or  are  ascribed  to  this 
enigmatic  artist,  are  very  uneven  in  execution.  Side  by 
side  with  prints  which  show  the  immediate  influence 
of  Mantegna  we  find  others  which  in  drawing  and  style 
approach  the  Venetian  and  Veronese  Schools  ;  then  some 
that  show  a  mixture  of  various  influences  ;  and  finally 
a  number  of  direct  copies  of  Diirer's  early  engravings. 
These  works  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  evidences  of  a 
studio  whose  director  was  an  engraver  and  v\'oodcutter, 
Zoan  Andrea. 

The  same  is  the  case  with  Giovanni  Antonio  da  Brescia, 
of  the  circumstances  of  whose  life  we  know  only  that  he 
was  settled  at  Venice  in  15 14.  He  copied,  perhaps  only  at 
the  beginning  of  his  career,  engravings  by  Mantegna,  and 
also  some  by  Diirer  ;  but  apart  from  these  we  have  engrav- 
ings by  him,  which  are  possibly  based  on  his  own  designs, 
or,  as  is  more  probable,  are  made  from  drawings  or  paint- 
ings by  North  Italian  masters.  In  his  prints  of  this  class  he 
proves  himself  a  skilful  draughtsman  and  engraver,  and,  in 
spite  of  his  somewhat  casual  and  careless  technique,  is  an 


THE    MILANESE   SCHOOL  83 

artist  of  distinct  power.  Some  sixty  engravings  are  attributed 
to  him,  not  all  of  them,  however,  bearing  his  signature. 

What  is  known  of  engraving  in  Milan  in  the  fifteenth 
century  is  limited  to  a  few  facts  and  a  small  number  of 
existing  works.  It  may  be  conjectured  that  several  of  the 
anonymous  Italian  engravings  of  this  j)criod  had  their 
origin  in  Milan.  In  1479  there  appeared  at  Milan  a  small 
book,  the  "  Summula  de  Pacifica  Conscientia,"  illustrated 
with  three  engravings,  almost  worthless  from  the  artistic 
point  of  view.  The  profile  bust  of  a  woman,  a  study  of  three 
horses'  heads,  and  another  plate  with  sketches  of  a  warrior 
on  horseback  (British  Museum),  may  be  regarded  as 
original  experiments  in  engraving  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
and  in  any  case  they  bear  witness  to  the  extraordinary 
power  of  their  designer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old 
engravings  after  Leonardo's  '  Last  Supper  '  do  not  appear 
to  be  by  engravers  of  the  ^Milanese  school  ;  still  less 
can  the  large  plate  (British  Museum)  bearing  the  name  of 
Bramante,  showing  interior  architecture  in  the  style  of  the 
full  Renaissance,  have  been  executed  at  Milan.  Probably 
Milanese,  however,  are  the  engravings  ('  Beheadal  of  Saint 
John,'  etc.)  ascribed  to  the  earlier  Cesare  da  Sesto ;  and 
as  works  of  the  Milanese  school  may  also  be  reckoned  the 
slight  and  amateurish  little  plates  with  the  signature  of 
Altobello  da  Melone. 

A  position  midway  between  the  Mantcgna  influence  and 
the  school  of  ]Milan  is  occupied  by  the  INIastcr  of  15 15,  who 
at  times  adopts  Leonardesque  subjects,  and  executes 
interesting  plates  in  a  somewhat  haphazard  and  irregular, 
but  always  spirited,  style.  By  him  we  have  a  series  of 
mythological  and  allegorical  pictures,  as  well  as  ornamental 
designs  of  trophies  and  studies  of  architectural  details 
after  antique  originals — forty-five  plates  in  all. 


84 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


How  many  of  the  anonymous  Italian  engravings  of 
primitive  character  had  their  possible  origin  in  Venice  has 
never  been  ascertained  ;  but  it  appears  as  if  the  art  of 
engraving  became  established  at  Venice  considerably  later 
than  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  Of  the  engravers  who  came 
into  prominence  among  the  Venetian  School,  mention  must 
first  be  made  of  Jacopo  de'  Barbari,  who  also  worked  as  a 

painter  and  a  designer  of 
woodcuts.  De'  Barbari,  al- 
though born  in  Venice,  was 
probably  of  German  origin, 
and  had  exchanged  his  origi- 
nal family  name  of  Walch 
for  that  of  de'  Barbari.  Ger- 
man printers  of  the  name 
Walch      were      working      at 


Venice  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  as 
Jakob  Walch  that 
D u rer  k ne w  hi m .  He 
stands  in  close 
relationship  to  the 
Nuremberg  School 
and  to  the  German 
artists  who  migrated 
to  Venice  ;  particu- 
larly, however,  to  Diirer,  At  a  late  period  he  travelled 
as  court  painter  to  Brussels  in  the  retinue  of  the  Arch- 
duchess Margaretha,  and  died  there  before  15 15.  We 
know  about  thirty-two  engravings  which  bear  his  mark — 
a  staff  with  a  serpent,  like  that  of  Mercury.  It  remains 
doubtful  whether  he  executed  these  engravings  while  still 
in  Venice,  or  first  worked    on   them  in   the   Netherlands. 


Fig-  39.     Jacopo  de'  Barbari :  Judith  (detail). 


GIROLAMO    MOCETTO  85 

Venetian  in  character  is  the  manner  of  their  drawing  and 
composition  ;  but  the  resemblance  they  display  is  external, 
showing  a  somewhat  weak  and  sentimental  imitation  of 
the  Venetian  School  rather  than  a  real  relationship.  His 
slight,  and  often  over-refined,  method  of  engraving  results 
from  his  familiarity  with  German  technique.  Above  all 
else  he  loved  subjects  taken  from  mythology  and  classical 
legend.  Dc'  Barbari  forms  an  important  link  between  the 
German  and  Venetian  art  of  his  period. 

The  most  distinguished  representative  of  Venetian 
quattrocento  engraving  is  Girolamo  Mocetto  (worked  after 
1484,  his  will  dated  1531),  who  takes  a  much  more 
important  position  as  engraver  than  as  painter.  In  con- 
trast to  the  style,  adopted  by  Mantegna  and  his  school,  of 
expressing  modelling  by  an  appearance  of  relief,  Mocetto 
strove  after  a  softer,  more  pictorial  treatment  in  the  spirit 
of  Venetian  art.  He  undertook  the  execution  of  plates 
of  large  size,  working  on  them  in  a  free  style  with  unevenly 
laid  sets  of  fine,  but  sometimes  crude,  line-work.  His  three 
prints  of  the  Madonna,  showing  the  Virgin  throned  and 
surrounded  by  saints,  are  quite  like  Bellini  in  their  type 
and  in  the  peaceful  mildness  of  the  Virgin's  expression  ; 
and  a  similar  resemblance  marks  his  large  '  Baptism  of 
Christ '  (fig.  40).  Evidences  of  more  hasty  execution  appear 
in  '  The  Calumny  of  Apelles  '  ;  while  '  Judith  with  the  Head 
of  Holofernes '  ranks  in  every  respect  as  Mocetto's  finest 
work.  Nearest  to  Mocetto  as  an  engraver  stands  Giulio 
Campagnola  of  Padua  (born  about  1482,  died  after  15  13), 
who  belongs  entirely  to  the  School  of  Bellini  and  is 
strongly  influenced  by  Giorgione.  Some  fourteen  plates  by 
Giulio  Campagnola  are  now  known,  among  them  some  that 
show  most  finished  drawing,  and  also  a  very  careful  and 
individual  technical  treatment.     In  his  use  of  the  burin  he 


"36 


ENGRAVING   IN    ITALY 


seems  to  take  Durer  as  his  principal  model,  but  he  attains 
a  tender  and  pictorial  effect,  peculiar  to   himself,  by  his 


Fig.  40.     Girolamo  Mocetto :  The  Baptism  of  Christ  (detail). 

method  of  scattering  between  the  lines  a  number  of  small 
dots,  to  express  shadows  and  gradation  of  tone.  Campag- 
nola's  prints  on  this  accoutit  have  been   taken  as    stipple 


GIULIO   CAMPAGNOLA 


87 


Fig.  41      Giulio  Campagnola  :  The  resting  Shepherd. 

engravings,  and  the  artist  has  been  credited  with  the  dis- 
covery of  stipple.  The  assumption  is  quite  erroneous,  for 
in  his  engravings  the  work  is  done  entirely  with  the  burin. 


88  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

There  is  remarkable  finish  in  his  finely  drawn  plate  of 
'  The  Rape  of  Ganymede,'  the  landscape  of  which  is  taken 
from  Durer's  *  Virgin  with  the  Monkey.'  Campagnola's 
peculiar  dotted  technique  is  shown  at  its  fullest  development 
in  his  engraving  of  '  Christ  and  the  Samaritan  Woman  at 
the  Well,'  with  its  composition  borrowed  from  the  Giorgione, 
and  in  his  large  plate  of '  St.  John  the  Evangelist.' 

Domenico  Campagnola,  probably  a  relation  of  Giulio 
and  alleged  to  be  his  nephew,  was  a  pupil  or  assistant  in 
Titian's  studio,  and  worked  at  Padua  between  15  ii  and 
1568.  His  compositions  are  powerful  and  full  of  life, 
but  the  drawing  in  his  engravings  is  far  too  careless 
and  casual.  Titian,  Giulio  Campagnola,  and  Jacopo  de' 
Barbari,  all  apparently  influenced  his  style.  He  shows 
particular  nearness  to  the  last-named  in  his  technique, 
and  in  his  manner  of  expressing  form  with  soft  and 
fluent  line.  His  work  with  the  burin,  however,  is  uncer- 
tain and  muddled,  and  there  is  most  cohesion  in  those 
of  his  plates  that  were  executed  under  the  influence  of 
Giulio  Campagnola  or  after  his  paintings.  Domenico 
perhaps  never  placed  his  own  designs  on  the  copper,  and 
apparently  practised  engraving  for  a  short  period  only, 
since  most  of  the  plates  signed  with  his  full  name,  or 
a  shortened  form  of  it,  are  dated  15 17  or  15 19.  If  one 
estimates  Domenico  Campagnola  merely  as  an  engraver, 
he  shows  on  the  whole  to  far  less  advantage  than  in  his 
beautiful  woodcuts  which  have  descended  to  us. 

The  engraver  who  signs  his  work  with  two  P's  joined 
by  a  scroll,  and  to  whom  the  name  Pellegrino  da  San 
Daniele  has  been  assigned,  is  now  ascribed  to  the  School 
of  Ferrara.  By  him  we  have  some  small  plates  of  won- 
derful fineness  and  precision  of  drawing,  with  the  outlines 
apparently   put    in    more   with    dry-point    than    with    the 


NICOLETTO    DA   MODENA 


89 


(■■  ail 


Fig.  42.    Nicoletto  da  Modena  :  St.  George  (detail). 


burin.     An  allegory,  full  of  figures,  showing  the  influence 
of    the     moon   on    mankind,   and    a    '  Descent    from    the 


90  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

Cross,'  are  the  principal  plates  of  this  highly  esteemed 
master.  Both  of  them  exist  in  a  second  state,  worked 
over  with  dots  exactly  in  the  manner  of  Campagnola. 

Benedetto  Montagna  (born  about  1470,  died  after  1547  ; 
probably  a  pupil  of  his  father  Bartolommeo)  is  in  nearer 
relation  to  the  Venetian  School  than  to  that  of  Verona, 
to  which  he  originally  belonged.  His  technique  is  akin 
to  that  of  Mocetto,  but  more  precise  and  regular,  yet 
at  the  same  time  not  free  from  hardness.  His  work, 
amounting  to  about  fifty  plates,  shows  considerable 
variations.  At  times  he  imitates  Diirer.  In  the  prints 
of  his  best  period,  for  instance  in  the  large  '  Sacrifice  of 
Abraham '  and  '  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,'  he  is 
absolutely  Venetian  in  style  ;  while  in  his  '  St.  Jerome ' 
and  his  '  Orpheus '  the  influence  of  Verona  is  apparent. 

Nicoletto  da  Modena,  who  frequently  signs  his  full 
name  (in  one  instance  with  the  addition  of  Rosex),  and  at 
the  same  time  uses  various  monograms  made  up  of  NR, 
NM,  NIC,  etc.,  was  originally  a  goldsmith,  as  is  shown 
by  his  apparently  early  engravings,  which  betray  their 
origin  from  niello  technique.  Schongauer  and  Diirer  both 
influenced  his  work  ;  from  the  former  he  made  a  direct 
copy  of  his  'Peasants  going  to  Market'  (B.  88),  and  he 
transformed  Diirer's  'Three  Witches'  into  a  'Judgment 
of  Paris.'  His  compositions  are  essentially  of  the  North 
Italian  type,  but  show  Florentine  influence  in  their 
handling.  Where  Nicoletto  is  most  independent  his 
technique  is  indifferent,  though  always  li\ely  and  effective  ; 
he  remains  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  among  the  engravers 
of  second  rank.  About  fifty  prints  with  his  signature 
are  now  in  existence,  but  the  importation  of  several 
works  wrongly  attributed  to  him  has  made  a  clear 
survey     of     his    work     no     longer     possible.        Nicoletto 


THE   NIELLO  91 

may  be  supposed  to  have  worked  for  the  most  part 
before  1500;  the  latest  date  appearing  on  his  prints 
is   1 5 12. 

The  Master  I.  R.  with  the  Bird  lB^i»,  whom  old, 
but  unfounded,  tradition  used  to  name  Giovanni  Battista 
•del  Porto,  belongs  probably  to  North  Italy.  His  style, 
however,  shows  so  changeable  a  character  that  one  can 
scarcely  place  him  within  the  narrow  limits  of  a  particular 
school.  His  work  with  the  graver  is  strong  and  skilful 
rather  than  delicate,  and  is  powerfully  influenced  by 
Diirer's  manner.  Most  of  his  engravings  treat  mythological 
subjects,  some  of  them  charming  compositions,  which 
cannot,  however,  be  regarded  throughout  as  original 
designs  by  the  engraver.  The  background  frequently 
consists  of  a  landscape  in  the  Diirer  style.  The  '  Leda 
and  her  Children  '  and  '  The  Nymph  with  two  little  Satyrs ' 
recall  Robetta,  and  suggest  Florentine  originals  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  again,  there  is  much  that  points  to  the 
relationship  of  the  Master  I.  B.  with  Milan,  particularly 
in  some  of  his  woodcuts.  The  approximate  date  of  his 
work  is  supplied  by  a  print  representing  twins,  who  were 
born  joined  together  at  Rome  in  1503,  without  doubt 
picturing  an  actual  contemporary  event. 

A  class  of  engraving,  richly  represented  in  Italian 
art,  is  that  of  the  Niello.  The  original  meaning  of  the 
term  was  an  engraving  on  silver,  the  lines  of  which  were 
filled  up  with  a  black  composition  made  chiefly  of 
sulphur.  This  method  of  technique,  already  employed  in 
the  Middle  Ages  for  the  decoration  of  ecclesiastical  and 
other  utensils,  attained  considerable  vogue  in  Italy  during 
the  fifteenth  centur}'.  If  a  silver  plate  is  engraved  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  quite  possible,  before  applying  the 
niello  composition,  to  take  impressions  from   it  on   paper. 


92  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

in  exactly  the  same  way  as  from  a  copper  plate  engraved 
for  the  purpose  of  printing. 

Vasari  relates  that  the  Florentine  goldsmith,  Maso 
Finiguerra  (born  1427),  discovered  the  art  of  printing 
from  copper,  and  therewith  the  art  of  engraving, 
by  taking  an  impression  on  paper  from  an  engraved 
"  pax "  (a  metal  tablet  presented  to  be  kissed  by  the 
faithful  in  church),  after  rubbing  it  over  with  lamp- 
black. This  story  obtains  apparent  confirmation  from 
the  fact  that  in  1797,  Zani,  an  Italian  art  critic,  dis- 
covered in  the  Print  Collection  at  Paris  an  impression 
from  a  niello  plate  representing  '  The  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin.'  This  he  took  to  be  an  impression  from  the  pax 
in  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Florence  (now  in  the 
National  iMuseum).  In  actual  fact,  however,  as  is  now 
known,  the  Paris  print  came  from  a  copy  of  the  Florentine 
pax,  and  the  pax  itself  is  by  no  means  the  work  of 
Finiguerra  mentioned  by  Vasari,  but  was  much  more 
probably  made  about  1455  by  another  Florentine  gold- 
smith, Matteo  Dei.  Vasari's  story  is,  therefore,  insufficient, 
and  Zani's  conclusions  as  to  the  origin  of  engraving 
fall  to  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  there  is  nothing 
to  bar  the  supposition  that  the  taking  of  printed  or  rubbed 
impressions  from  niello  plates  was  a  step  towards  the 
idea  of  printing  engravings  in  Italy.  The  complete 
development  of  the  process  of  taking  impressions  from 
engraved  plates  was  reached  in  Germany  at  a  much  earlier 
period  than  the  supposed  discovery  attributed  by  Vasari 
to  Finiguerra  in  1458,  and  also  earlier  than  the  Paris 
impression  of  the  niello  plate  executed  by  Matteo  Dei 
in  1455.  In  Italy  the  art  of  engraving  was  plainly  developed 
quite  independently  of  the  niello. 

The  printing  of  niello  plates   was    practised   during  a 


THE   NIELLO 


93 


!S^ 


considerable  time  by  Italian  goldsmiths.  It  appears  that 
goldsmiths  took  the  impressions  that  are  now  called 
niello  engravings,  or  simply  nielli,  in  order  to  preserve 
them  as  samples  of  their  work  and  for  use  in  the  workshop 
after  the  delivery  of  the  original  plate.  Such  impressions 
gained  popularity  as  patterns  for  goldsmiths'  work,  and 
for  this  reason  several  prints  from  one  plate 
often  came  into  circulation.  The  impressions 
could  be  made  without  complicated  appli- 
ances and  without  a  press,  by  simply  rubbing 
lamp-black  and  oil  into  the  engraved  lines 
of  the  plate,  laying  a  well-damped  piece  of 
paper  on  the  surface,  and  obtaining  an  im- 
pression by  rubbing  over  the  back  of  the 
paper  with  a  smoothing  bone  or  some  similar 
instrument. 

Nielli  are  almost  always  small  prints,  often 
less  than  an  inch  in  size  ;  the  engraving  is  fine, 
and  exceedingly  skilful  (fig.  43).  As  a  rule, 
they  contain  tiny  figures  standing  out  from  a 
dark,  deeply  scratched  background.  Besides 
*  The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,'  previously 
mentioned,  some  other  existing  nielli  may 
probably  be  attributed  to  Matteo  Dei.  Many 
of  the  nielli  which  show  marks  of  the  Floren- 
tine School  may  have  had  their  origin  in  the  workshop 
of  the  goldsmith  Pollaiuoli  ;  and  the  Bolognese  painter 
and  goldsmith,  Francesco  Francia,  is  considered  as  the 
designer  of  various  niello  engravings  that  show  some 
relationship  to   his  style. 

At  a  quite  early  period  nielli  seem  to  have  been  sought 
as  little  works  of  art,  outside  the  circle  of  goldsmiths. 
Apart  from   silver  plates  intended  for   filling  with  niello 


Fig.  43.  Niello. 


94 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


and  printed  only  as  occasion  required,  little  engravings 
of  the  niello  kind  were,  in  consequence,  extensively  made, 
and  impressions  from  them  put  into  circulation.  Nielli 
of  this  class — not  strictly  nielli,  because  intended  fromi 
the  first  to  be  printed — are  often  exceedingly  difficult  to 
distinguish  clearly  from  proper  nielli  ;  yet  certain  marks 
of  identification  may  be  established.  In  impressions  from 
silver  plates,  intended   always   to   be   supplemented  with 

niello,  the  engraving  as  a  rule 
is  particularly  fine,  clear,  and 
sharp,  and  this  intentional 
sharpness  appears  also  in  the 
impression,  in  conjunction  with 
very  deep  blacks.  In  the  print, 
moreover, any  inscriptions  must 
stand  in  reverse,  since  the 
plate,  and  not  the  impression, 
was  originally  intended  for 
view.  The  most  certain  means 
of  recognising  a  false  niello  is 
given  by  prints  that  come  from 
a  plate  obviously  worn  out  by 
frequent  printing. 
These  false  nielli,  intended  from  the  first  for  printing, 
exist  nowadays  in  large  numbers.  An  artist,  who  was 
particularly  diligent  in  their  preparation,  gives  his  name  on 
a  '  Resurrection  '  (at  Paris),  as  Peregrino,  with  the  addition 
of  Cese,  which  is  believed  to  denote  his  birthplace,  Cesena. 
Besides  this  there  are  about  forty  prints  of  the  niello 
nature,  on  which  appear  signatures  such  as  -0'.^»i>'C^ 
or  a  monogram  P,  which  without  doubt  stands  for 
Peregrino.  His  works  are  treated  entirely  in  the  style  of 
proper  nielli — charming  compositions,  delicately  engraved, 


Fig.  44.     Peregrino  de  Cesena. 
Niello  engraving :  Prudence. 


MARC-ANTONIO  RAIMONDI  95 

usually  mythological  or  allegorical  in  subject  (fig.  44). 
Besides  Peregrine,  other  unknown  artists  of  the  Florentine 
or  of  the  North  Italian  School  made  similar  nielli  or  en- 
gravings in  the  style  of  nielli — small  prints  with  tiny  figures, 
and  often  simply  ornamental  designs  of  delightful  com- 
position. The  background,  as  a  rule,  is  produced  by  close 
cross-hatching,  with  figures  or  ornament  standing  out 
brightly  against  it.  Artists  such  as  Marc-Antonio  Rai- 
mondi,  Nicoletto  da  Modena,  and  others,  borrowed  ideas 
in  many  of  their  engravings  from  niello  technique.  If 
the  art  of  engraving  in  Italy  did  not  spring,  as  was 
formerly  supposed,  from  the  niello,  it  obtained  never- 
theless no  small  influence  from  the  niello  in  its  develop- 
ment. The  high  value  placed  by  collectors  on  nielli 
gave  rise  to  frequent  forgeries,  which,  particularly  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  passed  into  currency 
from  Italy. 

Engraving  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century  shows 
varying  tendencies,  according  to  the  different  styles  of 
single  artists  and  of  independent  studios,  where  its  practice 
was  more  casual  than  systematic.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  appeared  Marc-Antonio  Raimondi, 
who,  like  Diirer  in  Germany,  gave  to  engraving  in  Italy 
an  individual  tendency,  which  he  forced  upon  almost  all 
the  engravers  of  his  time  and  of  his  country.  His  great 
technical  skill,  in  conjunction  with  his  power  of  trans- 
ferring with  absolute  truth  to  the  copper  plate  the  character 
of  works  of  art  created  by  another  hand,  opened  up  for 
engraving  a  new  province,  that  of  reproduction.  This 
statement  at  once  e.xpresses  the  difference  between  Marc- 
Antonio  and  the  painter-etchers  and  engravers  of  the  Italian 
and  Northern  Schools.  Perhaps  scarcely  one  of  Marc- 
Antonio's  many  prints  is,  from  beginning  to  end,  original 


96  ENGRAVING   IN    ITALY 

work.  Only  in  altering  his  copies  or  in  the  addition  of 
backgrounds  and  accessories  does  he  display  a  small  amount 
of  individuality.  He  worked  at  first  from  drawings  or 
paintings  by  his  teacher,  Francesco  Francia  in  Bologna, 
and  after  other  contemporary  masters.  His  plates,  though 
perhaps  not  all  of  them,  are  signed  with  a  variously  formed 
monogram  or  with  a  quadrangular  tablet — a  painter's 
palette  with  thumb-hole. 

Marc-Antonio's  earliest  dated  print,  the  '  Pyramus  and 
Thisbe '  of  1505,  shows  some  harshness  in  composition, 
like  Francia's  work,  but  is  powerful  in  drawing,  while  in 
technique  it  is  still  somewhat  loose  and  unfinished.  The 
study  of  Diirer's  engravings  exerted  the  greatest  influence 
in  the  development  of  his  style.  At  a  very  early  period 
he  forsook  Italian  traditions  and  modelled  his  style  on 
the  principles  of  the  German  engravers  and  of  Lucas 
van  Leyden.  It  is  noteworthy  that  at  the  same  time 
he  displayed  particular  liking  for  northern  landscape.  In 
the  figure  compositions,  reproduced  by  him  after  Italian 
masters,  he  frequently  added  landscape  backgrounds  which 
were  entirely,  or  at  any  rate  in  character  and  in  single 
details,  borrowed  from  Diirer  or  Lucas  van  Leyden.  This 
combination  of  heterogeneous  motives  lends  his  engravings 
a  curious  charm,  and  helps  to  make  up  for  the  lack  of 
original  invention.  In  some  dated  plates,  and  in  others 
apparently  very  early,  the  quick  advance  of  Marc-Antonio's 
technique  towards  its  final  perfection  can  be  readily  marked. 
From  the  harsh  and  uneven  handling  of  the  above-men- 
tioned '  P}Tamus  and  Thisbe,'  the  'Apollo,'  'Hyacinth,' 
and  'Cupid  '  of  1506,  and  the  probably  contemporary  '  St. 
George,'  we  find  him  in  his  'Mars  and  Cupid'  of  1508 
already  arrived  at  a  complete  mastery  of  technical  problems 
and  a  finished  executive  style.      This  depends  essentially 


MARC-ANTONIO    RAIMONDI  97 

on  the  fact  that  his  work  is  a  happy  union  of  German 
methods  with  the  broader  Italian  handh'ng  of  the  burin. 

A  special  division  in  Marc-Antonio's  work  is  formed  by 
his  copies  after  Diirer,  of  which  about  eighty  are  in  exist- 
ence. With  this  task  he  seems  to  have  been  occupied 
between  1500  and  1510.  He  not  only  imitated  Diircr's 
engravings,  and  particularly  several  early  plates,  with 
considerable  truth,  but  also  undertook  the  task  of  repro- 
ducing with  the  burin  on  a  copper  plate,  stroke  for  stroke 
in  the  original  size,  a  large  number  of  Diirer's  woodcuts  ; 
among  them  seventeen  prints  of  '  The  Life  of  the  Virgin,' 
the  whole  thirty-seven  of  the  so-called  '  Little  Passion ' 
on  wood,  and  also  a  number  of  others.  If  the  power  of 
Diirer's  draughtsmanship  seems  weakened  in  these  copies, 
it  nevertheless  remains  a  matter  of  astonishment  how 
Marc-Antonio  managed  to  express  on  copper  the  character 
and  technique  of  a  woodcut.  When  his  '  Life  of  the 
Virgin  '  was  published  with  text  in  book  form,  Diirer  com- 
plained bitterly  at  its  conclusion  of  such  thefts  of  his 
compositions,  a  complaint  probably  aimed  at  Marc-Antonio. 
While  copies  of  this  woodcut  series  possibly  appeared  at 
Venice  in  1506,  the  engravings  after  the  'Little  Passion' 
cannot  have  been  made  before  151 1,  since  Diirer's  originals 
bear  the  dates  1509  to  151 1. 

Marc-Antonio  probably  remained  in  Venice  till  15 10, 
and  here  was  produced  the  plate  known  by  the  name  of 
'  Raphael's  Dream,'  from  a  Venetian  original  of  the  School 
of  Giorgione.  In  15 10  we  find  Marc- Antonio  at  Florence. 
To  this  year  belongs  the  fine  print  known  under  the  title 
of  '  The  Climbers,'  reproducing  a  group  of  figures  frqm 
Michael  Angelo's  cartoon,  'The  Battle  of  Pisa.'  The 
landscape  -background,  supplied  by  Marc-Antonio  to  the 
figures,    is   borrowed    from    the    print   of  '  Mahomet   and 

7 


98  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

Scrgiu-s'  by  Lucas  van  Leyden.     At  this  time   his  style 
reached  its  fullest  development.     He  migrated    to  Rome, 
and  attached  himself  to  the  School  of  Raphael.     Marc- 
Antonio  now   became  the   chosen  engraver  of   Raphael's 
compositions,  and    while   his    plates   have   contributed    to 
spread  throughout  the  world  the  fame  of  the  great  artist 
of  Urbino,  it  was  the  brilliancy  of   Raphael's  art  on  the 
other  hand  that,  more   than  anything    else,  conferred  on 
Marc-Antonio's  prints  the  high  esteem  in  which  they  have 
been    held    by  his    contemporaries    and    by  all  the  world 
in   later   days.      Through   Marc-Antonio   Raphael's   style 
found  its  best  possible  interpretation  by  means  of  engraving. 
.Soon    after    1510    a   close    artistic    union  seems    to   have 
ibeen  formed  between  Raphael  and  his  engraver.     That  some 
such  connection,  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  of  Marc-Antonio 
to  Raphael,  did  actually  occur,  is  made  clear  by  the  fact 
that  Marc-Antonio  now  worked  far  more  frequently  after 
sketches    and    studies    by    Raphael    than    from    finished 
paintings.       By   virtue    of    his    rare    power    of    absorbing 
another's  style.  Marc- Antonio  was  now  in  a  position  to  pro- 
duce from  a  hasty  sketch  a  finished  and  perfect  engraving 
in    the   spirit   of  his   example.       In  consequence  of   this, 
many  of  Raphael's   ideas,  expressed  only  in  the  form  of 
drawings,  have  been  preserved  in  Marc-Antonio's  prints. 
It  is  impossible  to   obtain    sufficient   evidence    to   date 
Marc-Antonio's  succession  of  engravings  during  his  Roman 
period,  which  lasted  from  1510  to  about  1527.     Moreover, 
these    plates    are   very   different    in   their   treatment,   but 
the    differences    seem    to    be    caused    less   by    the    artistic 
development    of    the     engraver    than    by   other    reasons. 
It  may  be  assumed,  at  any  rate  in   the  case  of  part  of 
his    plates    after    Raphael,    that    Marc-Antonio    used    the 
services   of  pupils    and    assistants.     Out  of  a  number  of 


MARC-ANTOXIO    RAIMONDI 


99 


engravers  who  founded  their  st)'le  on  his,  some,  such  as 
Agostino  Veneziano  and  Marco  da  Ravenna,  were  probably 
his  immediate  pupils  and  studio  colleagues  in  Rome. 

The  management  of  Marc-i\ntonio's  engraving  business 
can  be  fairly  circumstantially  stated,  for  Raphael's  factotum, 
Baviera  (Baviera  de'  Carocci),  was  the  printer  and  publisher 
of  the  engravings  that  came 
from  the  studio.  The  difference 
in  the  treatment  of  the  engrav- 
ings corresponds  to  the  differ- 
ences in  Raphael's  originals 
which  Marc-Antonio  had  to 
reproduce.  He  clearly  made 
it  his  aim  to  express  in  his 
engraving  the  character  of  the 
example  before  him,  whether 
this  was  a  mere  sketch,  a  study 
worked  in  washes  of  sepia  and 
heightened  with  white,  or  a 
completed  painting.  His  exe- 
cution obviously  became  drier 
and  more  restrained  when  he 
was  dealing  with  a  finished 
work.  His  engravings  after 
Raphael's  paintings  are,  in  con- 
sequence, usually  less  successful 

than  those  after  his  drawings.  '  The  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents,'  for  its  richness  of  composition  and  power  of 
execution,  has  long  ranked  as  one  of  Marc- Antonio's  master- 
pieces. (A  copy,  the  so-called  '  Massacre  by  the  Little  Fir- 
tree/  is  attributed  by  recent  research  to  Marco  da  Ravenna.) 
^  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents '  may  rank  as  the  type  of 
3.   whole    group   of   engravings   executed    with    particular 


Fig.  45.     Marc-Antonio 
Raimondi :  St.  Barbara. 


lOO 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


tenderness.  To  this  group  belong '  The  Judgment  of  Paris,' 
'Dido'  (B.  187),  'God  appearing  to  Noah'  (B.  3);  'St. 
Cecilia'  (fig.  46;  B.  116)  after  an  early  study  differing 
strongly  from  the  finished  painting  ;  '  Poetry,'  from  the 
ceiling  decoration  of  the  Stanza  della  Segnatura ;  the  print 
known  as  the  '  Morbetto,'  picturing  the  plague  among  the 
Phrygians  described  by  Virgil;  'The  Virgin  beneath  the 


Fig.  46.     Marc-Antonio  Raimondi  :  St.  Cecilia  (detail). 

Palm-tree  ; ' '  The  Dance  of  Angels  '  (B.  217) ;  '  The  Virgin 
mourning  over  Christ'  (B.  35),  and  many  others.  The 
large  '  Ouos  Ego,'  Neptune  restraining  the  waves — per- 
haps after  Giulio  Romano — marks  the  transition  to  a 
second  group  of  Marc-Antonio's  works,  more  harsh  in 
their  execution,  and  producing  a  feeling  of  solid  relief  rather 
than  of  tone.  As  examples  of  this  method  of  treatment 
may  be   mentioned   the  .so-called   '  P'ive   Saints'  (B.   113), 


MARC-ANTONIO    RAIMONDI  loi 

'  The  Last  Supper  '  (B.  26),  '  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens  ' 
(B.  44),  the  three  prints  after  Raphael's  ceiling  decora- 
tions in  the  Farnesina,  and  '  The  Triumph  of  Galatea,' 
after  Raphael's  fresco  in  the  same  place.  In  this  group 
of  engravings  the  help  of  assistants  seems  probable  on 
account  of  the  size  of  the  plates,  while  in  some  of  them, 
such  as  '  The  Virgin  with  the  long  Thigh,'  the  work  of 
pupils  clearly  preponderates. 

After  the  catastrophe  that  befell  Rome  in  1527,  Marc- 
Antonio  seems  to  have  fled  to  Bologna,  where  he  is  said 
to  have  died  in  1534.  To  the  last  period  of  his  life 
probably  belong  the  numerous  prints  after  classical 
sculpture,  usually  coarse  in  treatment,  resembling  his  latest 
work  at  Rome.  That  to  the  end  of  his  career  he  preserved 
his  full  vigour  is  shown  by  engravings  which,  though  they 
belong  to  the  last  years  of  his  life,  are  yet  among  his  best 
and  finest  works.  Among  them  are  his  portrait  of  '  Pietro 
Aretino,'  and  the  largest  plate  that  he  ever  executed,  'The 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,'  after  Bandinelli. 

Marc-Antonio's  influence  on  the  art  of  engraving  was 
widespread,  particularly  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  gave 
the  art  an  entirely  new  tendency.  From  this  time  forward 
engraving  sought  its  conscious  vocation  in  the  reproduction 
of  the  original  work  of  painters.  Marc-Antonio  established 
engraving  in  its  attitude  of  dependency  upon  painting,  a 
position  that  for  line-engraving  proper  has  in  the  main 
always  held  good,  and  from  which  onl}'  a  few  engravers 
have  ventured  to  depart. 

Marc-Antonio  also  exercised  an  extraordinary  and  far- 
reaching  influence  as  the  founder  of  a  School.  The  list  of 
followers  who  built  their  technique  upon  his  comprises 
not  only  a  number  of  actual  pupils,  but  also  a  long  series 
of  more  remote  imitators  in  Italy  and  in  the  studios  north 


102  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

of  the  Alps.  At  almost  every  period  of  his  career  he 
seems  to  have  been  surrounded  by  students  who,  as  a  rule, 
must  have  been  assistants  in  his  studio  rather  than  pupils 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term. 

One  of  the  first  to  be  strongly  influenced  by  Marc- 
Antonio's  style  was  Jacopo  Francia  (born  before  1487, 
died  1557),  a  son  of  Francesco  Francia  of  Bologna,  and 
perhaps  in  his  early  days  a  companion  of  Marc-Antonio  in 
his  father's  studio.  By  Jacopo  Francia  are  several  prints 
signed  with  the  initials  J.  F.,  while  other  unsigned 
engravings  are  also  attributed  to  him.  They  show  a 
powerful  style,  akin  to  that  of  Marc-Antonio,  but  the 
handling  is  weaker  and  more  lacking  in  definition. 

In  the  first  rank  among  the  later  immediate  pupils  of 
Marc-Antonio  one  must  class  Agostino  de'  Musi,  who, 
from  the  place  of  his  birth,  has  taken  the  surname  of 
Veneziano.  At  the  time  of  his  first  connection  with 
Marc-Antonio  he  was  probably  already  fully  fledged  as 
an  engraver,  having  received  his  artistic  training  in  Venice. 
Veneziano's  work,  as  a  copyist  of  Diirer's  and  Campagnola's 
prints,  can  be  traced  back  to  15 14.  In  15 16  he  dated  his 
*  Dead  Christ  supported  by  Angels,'  after  a  picture  by 
Andrea  del  Sarto.  The  poorness  of  this  really  very 
inadequate  engraving  appears,  according  to  Vasari's  story, 
to  have  roused  Andrea's  wrath.  About  15 18  Veneziano 
was  working  along  with  Marc-Antonio  in  Rome.  To  this 
year  belongs  his  large,  fantastic  plate  known  as  the 
'  Stregozzo  '  (a  witch  riding  on  a  skeleton).  In  addition  to 
engravings  bearing  his  signature,  after  Raphael,  Giulio 
Romano,  Bandinelli  and  others,  a  great  number  of  plates, 
such  as  '  The  Virgin  with  the  Fish,'  formerly  ascribed  to 
Marc- Antonio,  may  be  accepted  as  Agostino's  work.  In 
his   later    days    Agostino    produced    numerous    prints   of 


AGOSTINO    VENEZIANO 


103 


ornament,  embodying  details  of  classical  architecture,  and 
also  portraits,  the  latter  without  any  fineness  of  conception, 
lie  appears  to  have  continued  working  till  about  1540. 


Fig.  47.     Agostino  Vencziano  :  The  Hour  of  Death. 

Another  of  Marc-Antonio's  assistants  in  Rome  appears 
to  have  been  Marco  da  Ravenna,  who  placed  his  full 
name  on  an  engraving  of  the  Laocoon  group  of  sculpture, 


104  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

and  his  monogram  --H^y^.  made  up  of  an  R  and  S,  on  several 

prints.  By  old  tradition  his  name  is  given  as  Marco  Dentc 
da  Ravenna  (died  1527).  Marco  was  a  weak  draughtsman, 
but  a  powerful  wielder  of  the  burin,  clinging  more  closely 
than  anyone  else  to  the  manner  of  Marc-Antonio.  When 
he  stands  by  himself  his  weakness  is  apparent,  and  he  fully 
realises  that  his  only  chance  lies  in  imitation  of  his  master. 
Several  engravings,  once  considered  as  original  productions 
of  Marc-Antonio,  are  now  recognised  as  copies  from  the 
hand  of  Dente,  among  them  the  so-called  '  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents  with  the  Fir-Tree'  (B.  20),  'The  Virgin  with  the 
Palm-Tree'  (B.  62  a),  '  Mary  mourning  over  Christ'  (B.  35), 
and  '  Venus  '  (B.  321).  All  of  these  copies  bear,  as  a  sort 
of  inserted  monogram,  a  little  fir-tree,  introduced  into  the 
landscape  background,  which  does  not  appear  in  Marc- 
Antonio's  originals. 

An  artist  of  greater  individuality  is  the  Master  with 
the  Die,  who  signs  with  ^§1  o^  ^^'i^h  the  initials  B.  V., 
and  whose  name  has  been  determined  by  recent  research 
as  Benedetto  Verino.  He  also  is  a  follower  of  Marc- 
Antonio  in  regard  to  technique,  but  adopts  the  style  of 
his  master's  early  Roman  period,  and  shows  a  preference 
for  compositions  of  the  Raphael  School.  In  his  best  plates, 
such  as  '  The  Virgin  upon  the  Clouds  '  (B.  8),  Verino  does 
not  fall  far  short  of  his  model.  Two  of  his  engravings, 
which  number  over  eighty  in  all,  bear  the  dates  1532  and 
1533,  ^"d  may  be  assigned  to  about  the  middle  period  of 
his  career. 

In  near  connection  with  the  artists  just  mentioned  as 
b..ing  close  followers  in  the  main  of  Marc-Antonio,  comes  a 
class  of  engravers  whose  style  is  certainly  dependent  on  that 
of  Marc-Antonio,  but  who  work  with  less  precision,  with 


GIOVANNI    JACOPO    CARAGLIO  105 

freer  drawing,  and  looser  engraving,  and  so  lead  gradually 
away  from  Marc-Antonio's  standard.  The  most  important 
in  this  second  group  of  dependants  on  Marc-Antonio  is 
Giovanni  Jacopo  Caraglio,  born  apparently  about  1500  at 
Parma  (died  1570).  He  is  a  powerful  draughtsman,  and 
probably  studied  engraving  under  Marc-Antonio  himself. 
The  art  of  Parmigianino,  at  that  time  coming  into 
prominence  and  dazzling  his  contemporaries,  took  Caraglio 
also  into  its  embrace,  and  made  his  drawing  and  engraving 
a  mere  echo  and  repetition.  Caraglio  was  a  many-sided 
artist.  In  1539  he  worked  as  an  architect  in  the  service 
of  the  King  of  Poland,  and  also  practised  as  an  engraver 
of  gems.  Among  his  works  are  engravings  after  Raphael 
('  Aeneas  carrying  Anchises,'  B.  60;  the  '  Gods  on  Olympus,' 
B.  54,  etc.)  ;  but  these  arc  less  numerous  than  his  plates 
after  Parmigianino  ('  The  Betrothal  of  Mary  and  Joseph,' 
■etc.),  Primaticcio,  Rosso  de'  Rossi,  and  similar  masters. 
The  firmness  and  formality  of  the  older  style  of  engraving 
appear  to  have  been  further  shaken  by  Giulio  Bonasone. 
As  a  rule,  Bonasone  also  bases  his  design  and  treat- 
ment on  the  art  of  Raphael,  but  his  technique  is  casual, 
and  even  careless,  while  his  drawing  is  too  often  wil- 
fully incorrect.  Yet  Bonasone  is  of  no  little  importance, 
and  his  work  amounts  to  over  three  hundred  and  fifty 
plates. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  there  entered 
into  Italian  engraving,  particularly  into  the  School  of 
Marc-Antonio's  followers,  an  clement  that  favoured  quick 
production,  and  that  served  still  more  to  sever  engraving 
from  the  older  and  more  solid  methods  of  execution.  This 
was  the  rise  of  an  extensive  business  in  the  publishing  of 
engravings,  that  finalh'  brought  the  engraver  to  complete 
dependence  on  the  publisher.     Marc-Antonio  had  already 


io6  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

possessed  a  diligent  commercial  assistant  in  Baviera. 
Baviera  was  followed  by  a  Spaniard,  Antonio  Salamanca, 
who  established  his  business  in  Rome  about  1540,  and 
bought  Marc-Antonio's  plates.  Other  art-publishers, 
as  a  rule  themselves  indifferent  engravers,  come  into 
view  at  this  time  and  later  ;  among  them  the  enter- 
prising Antonio  Lafreri,  Thomas  Barlacchi,  Rossi,  Dughet, 
Mario  dell'  Abacco,  all  of  them  established  in  Rome.  So 
long  as  a  shadow  of  drawing  was  still  visible  on  the  old 
plates  that  the  dealers  had  acquired,  they  were  printed 
again  and  again  :  hence  the  number  of  worthless  im- 
pressions of  Italian  engravings.  At  the  same  time  there 
w'as  profit  to  be  made  in  producing  fresh  engravings,  usually 
executed  at  the  artist's  request,  after  new  compositions 
in  painting,  and  also  plates  of  ornament,  architecture,  and 
portraits.  Aenea  Vico,  a  gifted  engraver,  born  at  Parma, 
and  working  between  1540  and  1560,  was  entirely  in  the 
pay  of  a  Roman  publisher.  Vico's  style  is  akin  to  that  of 
Agostino  Veneziano,  but  in  the  fashion  of  the  time  his 
work  shows  more  freedom.  Nicola  Beatrizet,  of  Lorraine, 
who  changed  his  name  to  an  Italian  form,  Beatrizetto,  was 
as  superficial  in  drawing  as  he  was  bungling  in  technique, 
and  seems  to  have  taken  pride  in  distorting  the  originals 
of  his  prints. 

In  spite  of  all  their  faults  and  deficiencies,  these  en- 
gravers nevertheless  preserve  certain  qualities  that  reflect 
as  in  a  mirror  the  greater  art  of  the  period,  and  so 
bestow  a  certain  value  on  their  work.  Along  with  men 
of  comparative  importance  appear  a  large  number  of 
engravers  whose  names  the  history  of  art  has  not  recorded. 
They  worked  in  the  service  of  publishers,  and  were  often 
little  more  than  mere  journeymen  engaged  in  the  rapid 
reproduction  of  works  of  art. 


GIOVANNI    BATTISTA    SCULTOR  107 

Just  as  Raphael  had  done  for  the  engravers  of  the  Marc- 
Antonio  School,  so  in  Mantua  his  pupil,  Giulio  Romano, 
determined  the  artistic  scope  of  the  engravers  of  his 
native  place.  The  founder  of  this  Mantuan  School — a 
second  founder,  if  ]\Iantegna  is  to  be  considered  the  first 
Mantuan  engraver — is  Giovanni  Battista  Scultor  (born 
1503).  Working  under  Giulio  as  a  sculptor  on  the 
Palazzo  del  T,  he  was  at  the  same  time  busy  as  an 
engraver,  and  produced  some  twenty  plates,  mainly  after 
Giulio  Romano,  as  well  as  several  original  inventions  in 
the  style  of  his  master.  In  regard  to  technique  Scultor 
follows  in  Marc-Antonio's  footsteps,  but  at  the  same  time 
he  strives  to  approach  the  close,  compact  handling  of  the 
Little  Masters  of  Germany,  while  working  with  dissimilar 
and  rougher  materials.  The  dates  on  his  plates  run  only 
from  1536  to  1539. 

Giovanni's  daughter,  Diana  Scultor  (died  about  1588), 
is  recorded  to  have  displayed  her  genius  at  an  extremely 
early  age.  She  was  entirely  dependent  on  the  style  of 
Giulio  Romano,  whose  sketches  and  finished  compositions 
she  reproduced  with  considerable  exaggeration  in  model- 
ling. Inferior  talent  was  displayed  by  her  brother  Adamo, 
probably  at  work  soon  after  1540,  and  apparently  active 
till  1585.  As  engravers  both  were  perhaps  influenced  less 
by  their  father  than  by  Giorgio  Ghisi,  of  Mantua,  the  real 
head  of  this  School,  who  probably  studied  originally  as  a 
pupil  of  the  elder  Scultor.  By  earlier  writers  the  mistake 
has  been  made  of  attributing  to  Adamo  and  Diana  Scultor 
the  family  name  of  Ghisi. 

Giorgio  Ghisi,  il  Mantovana  (born  at  ]\Iantua  in  1520, 
died  there  in  1582),  has  command  of  a  firm  and  pleasing 
style.  With  better  success  than  his  master  he  strove  to 
unite  the  solidity  of   ]\Iarc-Antonio's  execution  with  the 


io8 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


delicate  treatment  of  the  German  Little  Masters.  Between 
the  engraved  h'nes  he  was  accustomed  to  scatter  a  number 
of  little  dots.  Ghisi  is  wanting  in  the  finer  sense  of 
draughtsmanship  ;  his  heads,  for  instance,  are  often  weak 
and  inexpressive.  When  he  engraved  after  Raphael  or 
Michael  Angelo,  he  worked  with  a  certain  coarseness  of 


48.       Giorgio  Gliisi  :    i'tic  liiith  of  .Meiiinon   (detailj. 


modelling,  produced  by  his  study  of  Giulio  Romano's  work 
at  Mantua.  Raphael's  '  Disputa  '  and  '  School  of  Athens  ' 
were  engraved  by  him  in  folio  size,  and  also  '  The  Last 
Judgment '  of  Michael  Angelo,  in  a  series  of  eleven  plates, 
which,  when  joined  together,  form  a  sheet  of  four  feet  in 
height.  Many  of  his  engravings  were  made  from  pictures 
and  drawings  by  Giulio  Romano.    By  far  the  most  pleasing 


GIORGIO    GIIISI  IC9 

of  his  works  arc  those  in  which  he  has  given  free  play  to 
his  imagination,  for  in  this  case  his  lack  of  draughtsman- 
ship can  most  readily  be  overlooked.  One  example  is  the 
plate,  so  pleasing  in  its  richness  of  careful  detail,  usually 
known  as  *  Raphael's  Dream '  or  '  The  Melancholy  of 
Michael  Angelo.'  Ghisi's  collected  work  amounts  to 
seventy  engravings,  many  of  them  extremely  large.  In 
1550  we  find  him  at  Antwerp  working  for  Hieronymus 
Cock,  the  publisher.  Ghisi  is  one  of  the  most  important 
bonds  of  union  between  the  Schools  of  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  union  was, 
at  any  rate  to  begin  with,  no  great  source  of  blessing 
either  to  the  one  or  to  the  other. 


Ill 

ENGRAVING  IN  GERMANY  FROM  THE 
DEATH  OF  DURER  TO  THE  END 
OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 

THERE  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  Diirer  taught 
any  pupils  as  engravers  ;  we  hear  only  of  one 
Jorg,  an  apprentice  in  his  studio,  of  whom  we  shall  speak 
later.  There  are,  however,  innumerable  engravers  who 
took  Durer  as  their  model  ;  the  engraving  of  the  whole 
century  shows  the  marks  of  the  abiding  influence  of  his 
style.  His  work  was  almost  as  important  in  its  bearing 
on  Italian  and  Netherlandish  art  as  on  that  of  Germany. 
Prints  with  the  world-famous  monogram  could  be  found 
in  every  engraver's  studio  ;  students  and  skilled  copyists 
reproduced  them  line  for  line,  and  frequently  placed  their 
own  monograms  on  the  copies,  not  in  order  to  pass  off 
Durer's  work  as  their  own,  but  to  distinguish  as  their  own 
the  work  that  lay  in  skilful  imitation.  By  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  in  the  course  of  the  sixteenth, 
Durer's  engravings  were  reproduced  scores  of  times, 
enlarged,  reduced,  or  copied  on  the  same  scale,  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  success.  In  the  popular  market  Durer's 
engravings  held  their  own  for  a  centur}". 

During  the  period   from    1500  to  about    1520  no  pro- 
fessional engravers  appear  in   Nuremberg"  besides   Durer, 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  goldsmith  and  metal- 
lic 


LUCAS   CRAXACII 


Fig.  49.     Lucas  Cranach  :  The  Penitence  of  St.  John  Chrysostom 
(detail  of  bacltground). 


worker,  Ludwig  Krug,  whose  sixteen  known  prints  show 
him  as  an  artist  of  little  power  and  imagination,  but 
with  a  command  ;of  careful  technique. 

Diirer's  contemporary,  Lucas  Cranach  the  elder  (born  at 


112     ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   (1527—1000) 

Kronach  in  1472,  worked  principally  at  Wittenberg,  died 
at  Weimar  in  1553),  had  far  less  importance  as  an  engraver 
than  as  a  painter,  and  designer  of  woodcuts.  Yet, 
particularly  in  his  early  days,  he  executed  some  highly 
original  and  pleasing  engravings.  The  simple  charm  of 
his  early  paintings  appears  in  his  quarto-sized  engraving, 
'  The  Penitence  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  '  (fig.  49),  with  its 
delightful  wooded  landscape  ;  fresh  and  powerful  imagina- 
tion is  displayed  in  his  portrait  of  Frederick  the  Wise,  and 
in  his  portrait  of  the  same  ruler  along  with  his  brother, 
John  I.  ;  lifelike  and  original  in  conception  is  his  delicately 
engraved  portrait  of  Luther  in  1520  ;  while  that  of  Cardinal 
Albrecht  of  Mainz,  of  the  same  year,  is  noteworthy  as  a 
mere  copy  after  Diirer's  well-known  plate. 

Urs  Graf  (born  at  Solothurn  between  1485  and  1490, 
died  1529),  an  artist  of  great  talent  and  distinct  indi- 
viduality, worked  principally  as  a  designer  of  woodcuts  ; 
yet  his  few  engravings,  executed  in  a  free  and  unconven- 
tional style,  well  deserve  attention,  particularly  the  spirited 
print  of'  A  Seated  Soldier'  of  1515  and  his  '  Aristotle  and 
Phyllis'  of  1 5 19.  Urs  Graf  was  also  a  copyist  of  Diirer 
and  Schongauer.  He  is  the  author  of  an  etching  (existing 
only  in  a  single  example  in  the  Basle  Museum),  probably 
from  an  iron  plate,  in  close  lines  somewhat  formally 
handled,  picturing  a  woman  washing  her  feet  (possibly 
Bathsheba).  It  is  dated  15 13,  and,  according,  to  this  date, 
is  the  earliest  etching  known. 

German  engraving  in  the  sixteenth  century  obtains 
unique  distinction  owing  to  the  group  of  artists  known  as 
the  Little  Masters.  The  prominent  characteristic  of 
their  work  is  the  delicate  execution  of  minute  details  on 
plates  of  a  correspondingly  small  size.  Scenes  from  history 
or    everyday  life,   as    well    as   religious   subjects,   arc   all 


THE   LITTLE   MASTERS  113 

vividly  and  naturally  portrayed.  The  Little  Masters  ijavc 
particular  attention  to  ornament,  and  their  small  prints  of 
ornamental  designs  rank  as  the  most  original  and  charming 
work  which  the  art  of  engraving  has  produced  in  Germany 
since  Diirer's  day.  In  their  ornamental  motives  the  Little 
Masters  were  strongly  influenced  by  Italy  and  by  classical 
art ;  their  work  is  full  of  a  fine  sense  of  design,  and  always 
marked  by  supreme  good  taste.  These  prints  of  ornament 
were  intended  not  only  to  convey  pure  pleasure  by  their 
beautiful  design,  but  also  to  serve  a  practical  purpose  as 
patterns  for  goldsmiths  and  other  similar  craftsmen. 

The  group  of  Little  j\Iasters  has  no  sharply  defined 
limitation.  The  tendency  to  this  kind  of  minute  treat- 
ment was  already  present  among  the  German  engravers 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  also  among  contemporary 
Italian  workers  in  niello,  while'  Maximilian's  Sword-hilt'  by 
Diirer  is  a  standing  example  of  this  style  of  art.  Yet  it 
must  be  allowed  that  the  special  peculiarity  of  the  work 
of  the  Little  Masters  lies  in  their  having  given  intimate 
expression  to  the  tendency  of  the  time,  with  its  preference 
for  the  minute  and  delicate,  a  tendency  that  was  par- 
ticularly noticeable  after  about  1520,  and  that  is  reflected, 
for  example,  in  the  small  German  carvings  of  the  period. 

Albrecht  Altdorfer  (born  before  1480,  died  at  Regensburg 
in  1538),  who  worked  in  Regensburg  as  painter,  architect, 
and  designer  of  woodcuts,  is  the  oldest  of  the  artists 
who  may  be  counted  as  the  genuine  Little  Masters.  A 
remarkable  artist,  full  of  imagination,  taste,  and  natural 
charm,  he  had  a  touch  of  the  amateur  in  his  composition, 
and,  after  the  manner  of  an  amateur,  followed  his  own 
desires.  Altdorfer  was  probably  in  Italy,  if  only  for  a 
short  time,  before  settling  in  Regensburg,  and  derived 
some  inspiration  from  Italian  engravings,     A  considerable 

8 


114     ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

number  of  his  prints,  always  little  in  size,  show  a  more  or 
less  clear  relationship  to  niello  work.  This  fact  may  be 
remarked  in  his  prints  from  his  very  earliest  period,  the 
first  date  on  any  of  his  plates  being  1506.     At  times  he 

borrowed  ideas  from 
Marc-Antonio's  engrav- 
ings, as  in  his  '  Stooping 
Venus,'  etc.  One  of 
his  prints,  representing 
Prudence  seated  on  a 
dragon-like  monster,  is 
an  absolute  copy  of  an 
Italian      niello.  Alt- 

dorfer's  manner  of  en- 
graving, with  all  its 
painstaking  delicacy,  is 
never  worried  or  nig- 
gling ;  the  details  are 
fluently  expressed,  and 
the  final  result  is  re- 
markably broad  in  effect. 
Altdorfer  treats  bibli- 
cal scenes  (fig.  50)  as 
though  they  belonged 
to  everyday  life,  with 
originality  and  sj'm- 
path}'.  He  shows  us  a 
laying  her  child  in  the 
on  with  grandmotherly 
is   treated    as   an    archi- 


ng. 50. 


Albrecht  Altdorfer ; 
Holj-  Family. 


The 


Holy  Family  with  the  Virgin 
cradle,  while  St.  Anna  looks 
affection.  'Solomon's  Idolatry 
tectural  piece,  just  as  a  Netherlandish  artist  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  would  have  handled  it.  German  and  Italian 
formula:  and  methods  of  composition  are  moulded  by  him 


ALRRECHT    ALTDORFER 


115 


into  a  unified  whole,  always  pleasing  in  its  fresh  imagination 
and  its  charm  of  execution.  Answering  also  to  his  fan- 
tastic imagination  is  his  love  of  strange  effects  of  light, 
shown  in  the  'St.  Christopher'  striding  through  the  water 
at  sunset  (B.  19),  or  in  the  'Crucifixion'  (B.  8). 


Fig.  51.     Albrecht  Altdorfer  :  Landscape  (detail). 


In  his  engravings,  as  in  his  paintings,  Altdorfer  devotes 
particular  attention  to  the  landscape  backgrounds.  He 
has  also  left  a  series  of  finely  etched  plates,  picturing 
landscape  scenes  in  the  hilly  country  on  the  German  side 
of  the  Alps,  with  woods  and  castles,  without  any  intro- 
duction of  human  figures — the  earliest  use  of  etching  in  the 


ii6     ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   (1627—1600) 

representation  of  pure  landscape  (fig.  51).  These  etchings 
can  be  only  a  little  later  than  those  of  Diirer,  since  the 
Regensburg  synagogue,  destroyed  in  15 19,  is  pictured  by 
Altdorfer  in  a  careful  etching,  probably  made  immediately 
after  the  destruction  to  commemorate  the  event.  Altdorfer's 
etchings  were  apparently  all  done  on  copper,  and  with  far 
better  etching  materials  than  were  known  to  Diirer.  By 
the  same  method  he  produced  twenty- four  richly  decorated 
beakers  and  jugs  of  excellent  design  as  patterns  or  examples 
for  goldsmiths. 

In  his  capacity  as  engraver  and  etcher  Altdorfer  had 
no  followers  in  Regensburg  ;  the  other  contemporary 
Little  Masters,  at  least  the  principal  exponents  of  the 
style,  all  worked  under  the  influence  of  Diirer.  In  the 
first  place  come  the  brothers  Hans  Sebald  and  Barthel 
Beham,  typical  and  representative  Little  Masters.  The 
former  was  born  about  1500  at  Nuremberg,  and,  owing  to 
his  too  liberal  views,  must  have  left  his  native  town  along 
with  his  brother  in  1525;  he  must,  however,  have  very 
soon  returned,  and  during  the  following  years  remained, 
whenever  possible,  in  Nuremberg.  Later  he  removed  to 
F"rankfurt  on  the  Main,  where  he  was  enrolled  as  a  burgher 
1540,  and  died,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  in  1550.  His 
earliest  plates,  close  imitations  of  Diirer's  style,  such  as  '  The 
]\Ian  of  Sorrows  '  and  '  The  Virgin  with  the  Pear  '  of  1520, 
were  followed  by  a  '  Virgin  in  Glory,'  that  is  quite  original 
in  conception.  From  this  time  forward  Beham  was  striving 
to  develop  his  own  peculiarly  subtle  execution,  which  is 
remarkably  displayed  in  the  '  Moses  and  Aaron  '  of  1526. 
At  the  same  time  Hans  Sebald  Beham  must  have  been 
acquainted  with  Italian  art,  probably  that  of  Venice,  and 
absorbed  its  spirit  intelligently,  without  losing- his  own 
individuality  or  degenerating   into  imitation.      The  style 


HANS    SEBALD   BEHAM 


117 


now  developed  by  Beham  may  be  described  as  the 
technique  of  Marc-Antonio  transferred  to  a  considerably 
reduced  scale.  The  lines  are  peculiarly  fine  and  close,  at 
the  same  time  very  regularly  laid,  and  firmly  and  clearly 
drawn.  The  gradations  from  dark  to  light  are  expressed 
by  means  of  a  tone  given  by  small  dots. 

At  the  time  of  his  removal  to  Frankfurt,  about  1531, 
Beham's  artistic  development  seems  to  have  reached  its 
maturity,  and   there  commenced    a  long    period  of  even 


Fig.  52.     Hans  Sebald  Bcham  :  The  departure  of  the  Prodigal  Son. 

excellence  that  lasted  till  the  close  of  the  artist's  life. 
His  monogram,  which  up  till  about  1531  was  composed 
of  the  initials  H  S  P,  now  becomes  H  S  B.  Ninety-two 
prints  have  the  first,  about  two  hundred  the  second  signa- 
ture. The  quick  destruction  to  which  his  subtly  engraved 
plates  were  liable  in  printing  Beham  strove  to  obviate  by 
careful  retouching.  His  method  was  to  cover  over  the 
old  lines  with  entirely  fresh  work,  and  to  give  fresh 
roundness   of  modelling   by    means  of  small    dots,  often 


ii8     ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   (1527—1600) 


with  such  a  happy  result  that  impressions  from  his  re-worked 
plates  frequently  show  a  delicacy  of  work  only  slightly 
inferior  to  that  of  the  original  proofs.  At  times  he  copied 
and  repeated  his  own  engravings,  line 
for  line,  with  such  astonishing  fidelity 
that  prints  from  the  two  different  plates 
are  exceedingly  difficult  to  distinguish  ; 
as,  for  example,  his  two  treatments  of 
the  '  Sentinel  by  the  Powder  Casks.' 
Beham's  particular  province  lies  in  the 
genre  of  humble  life.  His  scenes  of 
baths,  his  pictures  of  peasant  and 
country  clown,  are  lively  and  full  of 
fresh  humour,  genuine  forerunners  of  the 
paintings  of  the  elder  Breughel.  In  his 
four  splendid  prints  with  the  history  of 
the  Prodigal  Son  (fig.  52),  Beham  shows 
absolute  dependence  on  the  great  ex- 
amples left  by  Diirer  and  Lucas  van 
Leyden  ;  his  Death  scenes  are  worthy  of 
a  place  by  those  of  Holbein.  In  Beham's 
purely  religious  subjects  there  is  lack  of 
sympathy,  and  they  remain  unconvincing. 
He  was  obviously  anxious  to  treat  sub- 
jects of  classical  mythology  in  the 
Italian  spirit  ;  yet  his  natural  German 
simplicity,  which  never  deserted  him, 
enabled  him  to  produce  compositions 
full  of  freshness  and  charm,  and  with- 
out any  taint  of  pedantry.  Less  pleasing,  on  the  whole, 
are  his  allegories,  which  to-day  strike  us  as  cold  and 
uninteresting.  Sixteenth-century  Germany,  however,  had 
a  strong  liking  for  these  pedantic,  moralising  inventions^ 


Fig-  53- 

H.  S.  Beham 

Ornament. 


BARTHEL   BEHAM  119 

which  from  this  period  occupy  an  ever-increasing  space 
among  the  creations  of  German  artists.  A  delightful 
group  among  Beham's  works  is  formed  by  his  numerous 
engravings  of  ornament,  which  again  show  the  adaptation 
of  Italian  ideas  to  German  methods  of  design,  and  are  as 
fine  in  conception  as  they  are  remarkable  in  execution 
(^S-  S3)-  About  1520  Beham  produced  a  series  of 
etchings  from  iron  plates,  showing  lighter  and  closer  work 
than  those  of  Dlirer. 

Barthel  Beham  (born  1502),  a  younger  brother  of  Hans 
Sebald,  appears  to  have  left  Nuremberg  in  1525,  entered 
the  service  of  William  IV.,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in  1527,  and 
died  in  1540,  apparently  during  a  journey  to  Italy. 

Next  to  Altdorfer,  Barthel  Beham  is  indisputably  the 
most  important  of  the  Little  Masters  of  Germany.  Of 
all  the  German  artists  of  this  period  he  has  been  carried 
furthest  along  the  lines  of  Italian  art,  and  has  most  com- 
pletely absorbed  its  sense  of  proportion  without  suffering 
any  loss  of  individuality.  His  best  qualities  are  revealed 
in  his  engravings  far  more  than  in  his  paintings.  In 
general,  Barthel  Beham's  art  is  closely  related  to  that  of 
his  brother,  Hans  Sebald,  but  in  many  respects  he  stands 
a  step  higher.  At  the  very  beginning  of  his  career,  about 
1520,  when  he  was  only  eighteen  years  old,  he  produced 
such  original  works  as  his  'St.  Christopher'  as  a  giant, 
lifting  his  unwieldy  frame  from  the  ground,  and  also  his 
'  Genius  '  riding  through  the  air.  The  soldiers  and  peasants 
in  his  little  prints  of  this  period  are  types  of  convincing 
sincerity.  In  his  method  of  treatment  at  this  time  Beham 
was  still  dependent  upon  Diirer.  An  approach  to  the 
style  of  Marc-Antonio  and  the  influence  of  Italian  art 
appear  in  Barthel  Beham's  work  after  he  left  Nuremberg 
in  1525.     He  now  produced  his  fine  plates — 'The  Virgin 


120     ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   (1527— 1G()0) 

at  the  Window '  (fig.  54)  and  '  The  Virgin  with  the  Skull.' 
Some  compositions,  of  the  nature  of  frieze  designs,  repre- 
senting a  fight  of  naked  men,  reveal  careful  study  of  the 
human  form.    From  1527  to  1535  Beham  was  in  the  service 


Fig.  54.     Barthel  Beham  :  The  Virgin  at  the  Window. 

of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  occupied  principally  in  engraving 
portraits.  Striking  in  expression  of  character  are  his 
portraits  of  Chancellor  Leonhard  van  Eck  and  the  Emperor 
Charles   V.      In    this  latter  Beham   attempts  to  emulate 


GEORG    PENCZ 


121 


Marc-Antonio's  '  Pietro  Arctino,'  with  perfect  success  in 
regard  to  the  quah'ties  of  the  engraving,  the  softness  and 
<leHcacy  of  the  execution.  Barthel's  prints  of  ornament 
show  the  same  charming  union  of  Italian  motives  and 
German  design  as  in  the  case  of  Hans  Sebald,  but  with 
perhaps  more  finished  taste  and  even  greater  delicacy 
of  treatment.  They  must  have  been  executed,  as  a  whole, 
while  he  was  still  in  his  twenties.  Barthel  Beham's  work 
numbers  ninety  prints  in  all. 

Of  about  the  same  age  as  the  brothers  Beham  and,  like 
them,  working  in 
Nuremberg,  was 
the  engraver 
Georg  Pencz, con- 
sidered to  be 
identical  with 
Diirer's  appren- 
tice, Jorg,  who  is 
mentioned  in 
early  documents, 
and  who  married 
his  master's  maid 
in  1524.  Till  his  death  in  1550  at  Brcslau,  Pencz  re- 
mained for  the  most  part  working  in  Nuremberg.  Dlirer 
and  the  engravings  of  Marc-Antonio  were  his  models. 
Pencz  is  a  capable  draughtsman,  following  Raphael 
rather  than  the  German  School  in  his  figure  compositions, 
but  always  possessing  sufficient  originality  to  steer  clear 
alike  of  mere  imitation  and  of  mannerism.  His  style  is 
not  brilliant,  but  very  careful,  soft,  and  harmonious.  His 
work  amounts  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  plates,  treat- 
ing biblical  and  mythological  subjects.  That  no  picture 
of  the  Virgin  is  included  among  them  is  perhaps  due  to 


Fig.  55.     Georg  Pencz:  The  Triumphal  Entry 
into  Jerusalem. 


122     ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

his  religious  attitude,  for  Pencz,  along  with  the  two  Behains, 
belonged  to  the  'godless  painters,'  whom  the  Nuremberg 
Council  expelled  for  their  free-thinking  views.  His  return^ 
however,  was  soon  permitted. 

More  spirited  than  his  dry  scenes  from  the  Life  of  Christ 
are  his  finely  conceived  'Seven  Works  of  Mercy'  and  the 
'Parable  of  Dives  and  Lazarus.'  In  his  'Thetis  and 
Charon'  he  has  followed  Marc-Antonio,  not  without  success. 
In  a  similar  way  he  emulates  his  Italian  model  in  a  great 
plate  after  Giulio  Romano,  the  '  Storming  of  Carthage.* 
Pencz  also  engraved  six  plates  of  Triumphs  from  the 
description  by  Petrarch,  finding  new  ideas  in  his  treatment 
of  an  often-pictured  subject. 

To  the  group  of  Nuremberg  Little  Masters  must  also 
be  assigned  the  Engraver  with  the  monogram  I.  B.  The 
dates  that  occur  on  some  of  his  plates  (about  fifty  of  them 
are  known)  run  from  1525  to  1530.  In  his  delicate  style 
of  engraving  he  is  related  to  the  Behams,  and  resembles 
them  also  in  that  he  likes  to  use  his  fresh  and  humorous 
invention  in  translating  scenes  of  everyday  life  into  little 
genre  pictures.  Like  Barthel  Beham,  the  Master  I.  B. 
shows  fine  judgment  in  the  union  of  Italian  and  German 
principles  of  ornament. 

Heinrich  Aldegrever  is  the  single  engraver  of  importance 
whom  Lower  Germany  has  to  show  in  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Born  at  Paderborn  in  1 502,  he  worked 
as  painter  and  engraver,  principally  at  Soest,  and  was  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  Reformation.  The  latest  date 
appearing  on  his  prints  is  1555.  Judging  by  his  drawing, 
his  composition  and  general  treatment,  he  must  have  come 
into  contact  at  an  early  period  with  the  painters  of  the 
Netherlands,  with  Mabuse  and  Bernaert  van  Orley.  He 
was  a  careful  student  of  Diirer's  prints,  and   imitated  him 


HEIXRICH    ALDEGREVER 


123 


as  well  as  Bcham  and  Fcncz.  Aldegrever's  figures  often 
show  unpleasing  mannerisms  ;  the  bodies  are  too  attenu- 
ated, the  heads  too  small.       His  prints,  about  two  hundred 


•^ALOnQN  •  CWSAJ^-  INTER.  IJVAS   •  J^VTJEFXS  •  DiRLMlT  •  1  •  KeG\M.     3   :      ] 

Fig.  56.     Heiiirich  Aldegrever  :  The  Judgment  of  Solomon. 

and  ninety  in  number,  only  a  few  of  which  exceed  quite 
small  dimensions,  show  sustained  care  and  finish.  Though 
he  was  facile  in  invention,  he  frequently  found  occasion  to 
borrow  from  Diirer  and  other  masters.     Aldegrever  was  a 


124     ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

fine  portrait  painter,  and  his  portrait  engravings  rank  also 
with  his  best  work.  In  two  remarkable  plates  he  pictured 
Johann  Bockhold  (John  of  Leyden),  King  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, and  Bernhard  Knipperdolling.  His  numerous 
prints  of  engraved  ornament,  among  them  daggers  and 
household  utensils,  such  as  spoons  and  buckles,  show  the 
type  which  Renaissance  forms  took  in  Germany  at  the  hands 
of  such  artists  as  did  not  come  into  direct  contact  with  Italy. 

These  leaders  in  the  group  of  Little  Masters  were 
followed  by  a  large  number  of  mostly  unknown  engravers, 
who  followed  their  models  with  endless  \-ariations  in  idea 
and  treatment,  but  without  adding  any  fresh  element  to 
the  art  of  engraving  in  little.  A  mere  copyist,  though 
many-sided  and  resourceful  in  technique,  is  Jacob  Bink,  of 
Cologne,  who  for  a  considerable  time  was  in  the  service  of 
the  King  of  Denmark,  and  died  in  1568  or  1569  at  Konigs- 
berg.  \\'ith  due  adaptation  of  style  he  copied  and  imitated 
every  attainable  print  by  Diirer,  Marc-Antonio,  Schongauer 
and  Caraglio  ;  incidentally  a  picture  by  Mabuse,  another  by 
B.  van  Orley,  and  engravings  by  the  Master  S.  of  Brussels. 
His  best  plates  are  his  portraits  of  Christian  III.  of 
Denmark,  and  of  the  Flemish  painter  Lucas  Gassel. 

Hans  Brosamer,  painter,  woodcut  designer,  and  engraver 
(born  at  Fulda,  worked  at  Erfurt  between  1537  and  1552), 
was  a  sound  artist,  who  imitated  Beham  and  Aldegrever 
with  a  neat,  though  somewhat  dr}-,  style  of  engraving. 

Innumerable  prints,  executed  in  the  style  of  the  Little 
Masters  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  in 
Germany,  arc  without  signatures,  or  else  bear  monograms 
which  it  is  impossible  to  interpret.  Their  numbers  show 
how  widespread  throughout  Germany  at  this  time  was 
the  appreciation  of  this  kind  of  work  and  the  ability  to 
produce  it. 


DANIEL  HOPFER 


125 


Once  the  example  had  been  set  by  Diirer  and  Altdorfer, 
the  art  of  etching  gained  an  equally  growing  importance. 
Etching  on  iron  was  practised  to  a  wide  extent  by  the 
Hopfer  family  of  artists   at   Augsburg,   three  of  whom — 


Fig.  57.     Daniel  Hopfer:  Christ  before  Pilate_(detail). 


126     ENGRx'WING    Ix\    GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

Daniel  (working  at  Augsburg  from  1493,  <^icd  1536), 
Hieronymus,  and  Lambert — managed  a  kind  of  picture 
manufactory.  Real  artistic  merit  was  of  secondary  im- 
portance in  their  eyes.  With  their  broad  and  expressive 
treatment  of  etching  upon  iron  the  Hopfers  seem  to  have 
openly  competed  with  the  woodcut.  Where  Daniel  Hopfer 
shows  more  care  in  his  execution  he  appears  as  an  artist 
of  no  mean  gifts,  with  a  particularly  sound  appreciation  of 
Italian  art.  As  a  rule,  however,  he  took  particular  pleasure 
in  remodelling  other  artists'  compositions  in  his  own  coarse 
style,  following  German  and  Italian  models  indiscrimi- 
nately. Frequently  he  uses  motives  that  he  can  only  have 
borrowed  from  Italian  paintings.  From  Mantegna's  fresco 
in  the  Chapel  of  S.  Agostino  agli  Eremitani  at  Padua, 
'  St.  James  before  the  Judge,'  he  reconstructs  a  '  Christ  before 
Pilate '(fig.  57).  With  more  or  less  fidelity,  but  in  a  heavy 
and  clumsy  style,  Hieronymus  copied  engravings  by  Diirer, 
Jacopo  de'  Barbari,  and  others.  In  their  casual  and 
careless  work,  that  one  might  almost  believe  to  be  wilfully 
intentional,  the  Hopfer  prints  often  verge  closely  on  the 
borders  of  caricature.  Hieronymus  worked  entirely  in 
Daniel's  style  as  a  copyist,  principally  of  German  engravings; 
Lambert  is  absolutely  unimportant. 

Etching  on  iron  fell  into  disuse  as  soon  as  the  methods 
of  etching  on  copper  were  brought  to  greater  perfection 
and  became  better  known.  About  1540  etching  on  copper 
began  to  occupy  its  true  position,  and  at  once  contested 
the  field  not  only  with  line-engraving,  but  with  the  woodcut 
as  well.  At  the  outset  the  most  active  influence  at  work 
was  clearly  supplied  by  Altdorfer's  etchings  of  landscape. 

Augustin  Hirschvogel  (stated  to  have  been  born  in 
1503  and  to  have  died  in  1553),  with  a  remarkable  head 
for  invention,  engineer,  die-sinker,  and  maker  of  enamelled 


AUGUSTIX    HIRSCHVOGEL 


127 


earthenware, 
etched  some 
hundred  and 
fifty  plates 
with  great 
precision  and 
delicacy, 
mainly  be- 
tween 1543 
and  1549.  His 
figure  sub- 
jects are  weak, 
but  he  dis- 
plays f  i  n  e 
invention  and 
imagination 
in  his  land- 
scape prints, 
executed  in 
light  outlines, 
with  a  pre- 
ference for 
hilly  country 
and  broad 
stretches  of 
water  (fig. 
58).  A  little 
later  Hans 
Sebald  Lau- 
tensack  (born 
at  Nurem- 
berg in  1524, 
died    in    1563,    probably    at     Vienna)    began    to  handle 


128     ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

the  etching-needle  in  a  similar  way.  He  worked  also  at 
engraving,  and  was  one  of  the  first  after  Lucas  van  Leyden. 
to  combine  line-engraving  and  etching  on  the  same  plate- 
In  his  portraits  Lautensack  first  etched  in  the  clothes  and 
the  background,  and  then  finished  with  the  burin  the  finer 
parts,  such  as  the  face  and  hands.  At  times,  however,, 
he  employed  the  burin  simply  as  an  aid  in  strengthening, 
and  harmonising  work  executed  completely  in  etching.. 
The  best  part  of  Lautensack's  work  consists  again  of  land- 
scapes, fresh  studies  of  nature  with  rich  variety  of  finely 
wooded  country,  with  villages  and  watersheds  (fig.  59).. 
Lautensack's  landscapes  are  pure  etching,  without  any 
touch  of  burin  or  dry-point,  but  showing  better  effects  of 
tone  and  finer  pictorial  feeling  than  those  of  Hirschvogel. 

The  combination  of  line-engraving  and  etching,  practised 
by  Lautensack  in  his  portraits,  found  increasing  employ- 
ment from  this  time  forward,  not  so  much  with  a  view  tO' 
serving  any  artistic  purpose  as  with  the  idea  of  attaining 
the  approximate  effect  of  a  line-engraving  with  greater 
quickness  and  economy  of  means  than  was  possible  with 
the  burin  alone.  The  new  method  tended  at  once  to- 
increased  production  and  more  hasty  work,  and  is  one  of 
the  symptoms  of  the  decline  of  German  art,  which  now 
lacked  the  guidance  of  any  great  master.  The  Reforma- 
tion, moreover,  limited  the  province  of  the  arts,  and  where 
they  survived  in  the  service  of  the  Catholic  faith,  there 
entered  an  element  of  affectation  and  insincerity  in  place 
of  the  earlier  simplicity.  The  decline  made  itself  most 
strongly  felt  in  painting,  and  next  in  the  kindred  arts 
of  engraving  and  wood-cutting.  The  second  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century  existed  almost  solely  on  the  lingering 
effects  of  the  arts  and  crafts  of  the  first  half.  It  is  true  that 
the    production  of   engravings  underwent   no   diminution, 


HANS    SEBALD    LAUTEXSACK 


129 


but  rather  a  visible  increase,  owing  to  t!ie  circumstances 
of  the  time.  The  perfected  development  of  etching 
caused  an  ease  and  simplicity  of  production  unknown  in 


Fig.  59.     Hans  Sebald  Lautensack  :  Landscape  (detail). 


earlier  days.  There  came  into  existence  a  class  of 
merely  mechanical  producers,  whose  astounding  fertility 
kept  the  art  market  well  supplied.  The  number  of 
religious  pictures  at  the  same  time  fell  behind  that  of 
profane  subjects  ;  a  large  space  was  occupied  by  allegories, 

9 


130     ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   (1527—1600) 

emblems,  portraits,  and,  finally,  political  manifestoes.  Line- 
engraving  and  etching  also  began  to  find  employment  as 
book-illustrations  in  place  of  woodcuts.  Goldsmiths  and 
craftsmen  of  every  kind  were  now  supplied  by  engravers 
with  an  incalculable  number  of  patterns  and  designs. 

One  of  the  most  important  producers  of  this  kind  of 
work  was  the  Nuremberg  artist  Virgil  Solis  (15 14 — 1562). 
His  work    is    the    natural    product   of  that   of  the  Little 


Fig.  60.     Virgil  Solis  :  Allegorical  figure  of  Truth. 


Masters,  but  while  he  depends  upon  them,  he  continually 
borrows  from  Marc-Antonio,  Ducerceau,  and  many  others. 
Yet  he  is  no  mere  copyist,  and  when  occasion  offers  he  is 
full  of  originality  and  invention.  His  work  with  the  burin 
is  thin  and  meagre,  but  his  etchings  show  delicacy  and 
charm.  Of  the  hundred  prints,  almost  always  small  in 
size,  that  bear  his  monogram,  probably  a  large  proportion, 
was  the  work  of  assistants  and  pupils.  Whether  the 
numerous  existing  replicas  of  his  plates  were  made  by 
Solis  himself,  or  were  copied  by  other  hands,  is  doubtfuk 


JOST   AMMAN  131 

Some  contemporary  verses  describe  him,  along  with  other 
artists,  in  doggerel  lines  : 

'As  Virgil  Solis  am  I  named  ; 
My  art  throughout  the  world  is  famed. 
By  my  hand's  assisting  aid 
Many  a  craftsman  has  been  made. 
Father  of  artists  me  they  call, 
Faithful  servant  of  artists  all.' 

On  the  same  lines  as  Solis  worked  Matthias  Ziindt, 
who  was  a  fine  ornamentist  with  a  delicate  style  of  etching, 
and  also  the  Master  of  the  Vase  Designs  (Kraterographie), 
closely  related  in  style  to  Ziindt,  and  possibly  identical 
with  him.  His  series  of  designs  for  goldsmiths,  consisting 
of  cups  and  vases,  dated  1551,  shows  remarkable  fineness 
both  of  form  and  execution. 

Jost  Amman  (1539 — 1590)  born  at  Ziirich,  and  working 
in  Nuremberg,  was  another  prolific  etcher,  somewhat 
commonplace  at  times  in  his  imitation  of  Italian  methods, 
but  many-sided  and  resourceful,  and  exercising  consider- 
able influence  on  the  German  art  of  his  time. 

Amman's  etching,  even  when  he  worked  on  plates 
of  large  dimensions,  was  fine  and  delicate,  as  appears  in 
his  allegorical  representation  of  the  Four  Elements  (fig.  61)  ; 
moreover,  he  had  the  power  of  producing  complicated 
effects  of  light,  as  in  the  print  showing  a  night  scene 
with  fireworks.  That  Amman  was  in  a  position  to  do 
justice  to  the  higher  claims  of  art  is  shown  by  his  etched 
portraits  of  Bishop  Friedrich  of  Wlirzburg  and  of  Adam 
Kahl.  Nuremberg  still  remained  the  principal  seat  of 
production  of  everything  connected  with  the  making  of 
prints.  Amman's  immediate  successors  at  Nuremberg 
were  the  etchers,  Lorenz  Strauch(i554 — 1630)  and  Hans 
Sibmacher    (died    161 1),  the  latter  of  whom    designed  a 


132     ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY   (1527—1600) 


famous  "  Book  of  Heraldry,"  carefully  executed  in  the  style 
of  the  Little  Masters. 

Among  the  group  of  Swiss  and  Strasburg  artists,  who 
at  this  period  were  cultivating  the  art  of  wood-cutting 
with  originality  and  fertility,  Christoph  Maurer  of  Zurich 
(1558 — 1614),  and  Abel  Stimmer,  are  noteworthy  also  as 

etchers. 
li^^/'-/%.  ^^^:^J^^^;;'J  Parallel     with    the 

'^^''  "■  new  School,  at  whose 
head  stands  Jost 
Amman,  certain 
artists  were  carrying 
to  still  further  conclu- 
sions the  traditions  of 
the  old  engravers  and 
of  the  first  generation 
of  Little  Masters. 
Among  these  were 
Franz  Brun  at  Stras- 
burg (working  be- 
tween 1559  and  1596), 
and  Peter  Rodelstadt, 
Cranach's  successor 
at  the  royal  court  of 
Weimar. 

The  services  ren- 
dered by  engraving  and  etching  to  the  arts  and  crafts 
were  not  limited  to  the  prints  of  ornament  and  patterns 
designed  by  professional  engravers.  Burin  and  needle 
were  now  frequently  employed  by  goldsmiths  and  crafts- 
men of  every  kind  who  wished  to  spread  their  artistic 
ideas,  and  particularly  by  '  architects,'  by  which  term  must 
be  understood  not  so  much  working  architects  as  painters 


Fig.  61.     Jost  Amman  :  The  Four  Elements 
(detail). 


ILLUSTRATED   BOOKS  133 

and  wood-carvers,  who  imagined  themselves  to  be  archi- 
tectural designers.  Foremost  among  these  is  VVendelin 
Dietterlein,  who  in  1 593  published  his  "  Architectura,"  with 
209  coarsely  etched  but  pleasing  plates,  a  pattern-book 
for  furniture-makers,  joiners,  and  similar  craftsmen.  The 
book  is  full  of  originality,  but  the  wilful  extravagance  of 
some  of  the  ornamental  designs  exercised  no  favourable 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  later  so-called  German 
Renaissance.  Dietterlein  was  followed  by  Guckeisen, 
Ebelmann,  Veit  Eck,  George  Haas,  etc. 

The  comparative  ease  in  producing  etchings  caused  the 
possibility  of  illustrated  works,  occasionally  of  enormous 
size,  which  served  to  satisfy  the  passion  for  pictures  in  the 
same  way  as  our  modern  illustrated  newspapers.  One  of 
these  is  the  series  of  "  Views  of  Towns,"  published  from 
1572  by  Georg  Braun  (or  Bruin),  Dean  of  the  Church  of 
St.  Maria  at  Cologne,  in  conjunction  with  the  painter  and 
etcher,  Franz  Hogenberg.  It  contains  a  hundred  folio- 
sized  views  of  towns,  most  of  them  extremely  good,  some 
by  Hogenberg  himself,  others  executed  with  the  assistance 
of  a  well-organised  artistic  staff,  gathered  from  far  and 
near.  Hogenberg  also  published,  between  1559  and  1593, 
his  "  De  Leone  Belgico,"  with  a  continuous  series  of  line- 
engravings  depicting  events  of  the  war  in  the  Netherlands. 
Planned  on  a  still  larger  scale  than  these  was  the  descrip- 
tion of  countries  and  travels,  illustrated  with  etchings, 
published  by  Theodor  de  Bry  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Main 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Two  Indies,"  and  continued  later 
by  Merian,  till  it  came  to  a  close  with  the  twenty-fourth 
folio  volume  in  1634.  The  total  pictorial  production  of 
this  period  in  Germany,  meritorious  though  it  is  in  part, 
left  no  artistic  influence  of  any  permanent  value. 


IV 
ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

TPlE  beginnings  of  the  art  of  engraving  in  the  Nether- 
lands h'e  concealed  among  the  productions  of 
anonymous  artists  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Whether 
engraving  was  practised  to  any  great  extent  at  this  period 
in  the  Netherlands  remains  unknown.  The  enigmatic 
Master  of  Zwolle  (see  above,  p.  39),  if  he  actually  did 
work  in  Zwolle,  is  an  isolated  instance.  Out  of  the  dark- 
ness that  wraps  the  history  of  Netherlandish  engraving 
till  after  1500  Lucas  Jacobsz  van  Leyden  steps  suddenly 
into  the  light.  Born  possibly  in  1494,  working  at  Leyden 
and  also  at  Antwerp  till  his  death  in  1533,  he  occupied 
a  position  in  the  Netherlands  like  that  of  Diirer  in 
Germany.  Many-sided  and  active,  with  an  easy,  certain 
style,  he  lacked  the  depth  and  soul  of  his  Nuremberg 
contemporary.  Yet  he  played  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  in  the  development  of  Netherlandish  art,  for  he 
started  the  art  of  his  country,  in  ideas  and  in  choice  of 
subjects,  along  those  lines  on  which  Dutch  painting  of  the 
seventeenth  century  found  expansion.  The  Dutch  types 
of  religious  and  profane  genre  subjects  may  be  traced 
back  to  Lucas  van  Leyden  as  their  originator. 

If  tradition  is  right  as  to  the  year  of  his  birth,  Lucas 
van  Leyden  was  a  capable  artist  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
for  his  engraving  of '  Mohamed  killing  the  Monk  Sergius,' 

134 


Fig.  62.     Lucas  van  Leyden  :  the  great  '  Ecce  Homo  '  (detail). 
135 


136  ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

showing  fully  developed  technique,  is  dated  i  508.  Another 
apparently  very  early  plate,  '  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,' 
appears  to  have  been  conceived  quite  in  the  spirit  of 
Ouvvater,  the  father  of  Dutch  painting.  Leyden's  work, 
amounting  to  about  a  hundred  and  eighty  prints,  shows 
significant  changes  of  style.  Particularly  at  the  beginning 
of  his  career,  he  had  a  poor  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and 
motion  of  the  human  figure,  but  this  was  counterbalanced 
by  the  liveliness  and  actuality  of  his  conceptions.  He 
accentuates  only  what  is  characteristic  in  his  subject  ;  for 
what  is  merely  pleasing  he  cares  nothing. 

In  his  early  days  Lucas  van  Leyden  worked  on  the 
copper  plate  with  the  greatest  ease  and  simplicity.  His 
graver  lines  are  sharp  and  delicate,  with  stronger  emphasis 
here  and  there,  while  the  whole  effect  of  his  prints  is  clear 
and  pleasing.  At  a  later  period,  particularly  under  Diirer's 
influence,  his  work  became  more  formal  and  regular  ;  but 
his  earlier  works,  with  their  more  free  and  fresh  handling, 
convey  an  immediate  sense  of  charm.  In  his  '  Conversion 
of  Saul,'  a  large  folio-sized  engraving  of  1509,  he  attempted 
a  bolder  style  ;  but  in  15 10,  in  his  great  'Ecce  Homo' (fig.  62), 
and  in  his  series  of  nine  round  plates  of  the  Passion,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  year,  he  returned  to  his  habit  of  careful  and 
detailed  work.  The  '  Ecce  Homo,'  just  mentioned,  is  one 
of  his  most  mature  and  most  highly  finished  engravings. 
To  the  years  1510  to  1520  belong  such  important  works 
as  '  The  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,'  '  David  playing  the 
Harp  before  Saul,'  and  '  The  Adoration  of  the  Kings.'  The 
last,  a  composition  of  great  nobility  of  design  and  masterly 
in  execution,  is  dated  1 5 1 3.  A  number  of  small  plates  treat 
genre  scenes — The  Girl  with  the  Cow,  Two  Pilgrims 
Resting,  the  Village  Surgeon,  the  Dentist — subjects  that 
a  Dutchman  of  the  seventeenth  century  would  have  treated 


LUCAS   VAN    LEYDEN  137 

in  an  absolutely  similar  \va}'.  Lcyden's  '  Virgin  '  is  an  ugly 
and  commonplace  type  ;  only  where  he  depicts  subjects  of 
everyday  life,  does  he  appear  at  the  height  of  his  art. 

A  complete  change  of  style  and  technique  appeared  in 
the  work  of  Lucas  van  Leyden  about  1520,  probably  in 
consequence  of  his  meeting  with  Diirer  at  Antwerp.  So 
pow^erful  was  the  influence  of  the  Nuremberg  master  upon 
him  that  in  a  Passion  series  of  1521  he  imitated  DUrer's 
treatment,  and  borrowed  both  ideas  of  composition  and 
the  size  of  his  plates  from  Dlirer's  engraved  Passion.  He 
seems  almost  to  have  discarded  his  own  individuality,  till 
by  gradual  stages  he  arrived  at  a  union  of  his  own  style 
with  that  of  Diirer,  About  1520  Lucas  van  Leyden, 
possibly  again  under  Diirer's  guidance,  took  to  etching, 
working  not  on  iron,  but  on  copper,  and  made  the  first 
attempts,  so  far  as  we  know,  to  combine  burin  work  with 
etching.  This  is  the  case  with  his  portrait  in  1520  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian.  The  period  of  Diirer's  influence 
over  Lucas  van  Leyden's  work  came  to  an  end  in  1528 
with  his  acceptation  of  a  new  model  in  the  person  of 
Marc-Antonio  Raimondi.  For  a  second  time  he  threw 
overboard  all  his  previous  principles,  this  time  in  order  to 
draw  and  engrave  like  Raphael's  pupil. 

'  Lot  and  his  Daughters,'  '  Mars  and  Venus,'  a  set  of 
the  Virtues,  etc.,  bear  witness  to  this  revolution,  which 
remained  as  unsatisfactory  as  all  the  attempts  of  the  Nether- 
landish artists  of  the  day  to  accommodate  themselves  to 
the  Italian  style.  The  last  dated  plates  of  Lucas  van 
Leyden,  all  in  the  manner  of  Marc-Antonio,  are  signed 
1530.  Lucas  van  Leyden  appears  neither  to  have  taught 
any  pupils  nor  to  have  found  any  immediate  followers. 
His  influence  asserted  itself  far  more  among  later  artists 
than  among  those  living  with  or  immediately  after  him. 


138  ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

The  engravers  attached  to  the  School  of  Mabuse  and 
Bernhard  van  Orley  attained  no  very  great  importance. 
By  Jan  Gossaert,  called  Mabuse  (worked  about  1470  to 
1541),  we  have  two  thinly  engraved  prints  of  the  Madonna. 
In  style  Mabuse  is  related  to  the  Master  who  signs  with 
a  Crab,  and  whose  name  may  have  been  Crabbe.  Like 
him,  partly  influenced  by  German  art,  is  the  engraver 
traditionally  known  as  Allacrt  Claesz  or  Claessen.  A 
Little  Master  of  the  Flemish  type  is  the  engraver  usually 
known  as  the  Master  S.,  of  Brussels.  The  large  number 
of  his  existing  prints  gives  rise  to  the  conjecture  that  the 
mark  S  represents  the  work  of  a  whole  studio.  Attached 
to  him  come  a  number  of  engravers.  Cornelis  Metsys 
(working  from  1520  to  about  1560)  appears  to  be  a  weak 
imitator  of  Marc-Antonio  and  of  the  German  Little 
Masters.  The  natural  development  of  Netherlandish  en- 
graving, from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  onwards, 
was  interrupted  by  the  overpowering  influence  of  Italy, 
a  power  to  which  Lucas  van  Leyden  had  already  suc- 
cumbed. Netherlandish  artists  travelled  to  Italy,  and 
Italians  to  the  Netherlands,  as  is  proved  by  Giorgio 
Ghisi's  stay  at  Antwerp  about  1551.  The  union  of  Italian 
and  Netherlandish  elements  appears  in  Lambert  Suavius, 
who  worked  at  Li'ittich,  and  was  son-in-law  and  pupil  of 
Lambert  Lombard,  possibl}',  too,  a  German  by  birth 
(Suavius,  i.e.  the  Suabian).  In  composition  and  in  tech- 
nique he  attempted  to  strike  a  mean  between  Lucas  van 
Leyden  on  the  one  hand  and  Marc-Antonio  on  the  other. 

In  the  history  of  engraving  at  Antwerp  the  enormious 
activity  of  the  Antwerp  art  publisher,  Hieronymus  Cock, 
is  of  particular  importance.  Cock,  himself  a  skilled  en- 
graver and  etcher,  had  close  relations  with  the  engravers 
on   both  sides  of  the   Alps,  and   in   the  prints  issued   by 


THE    BROTHERS   VVIERIX 


139 


him  popularised  the  work  of  the  elder  Breughel,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  Italian  post-classical  painters.  During  his 
visit  to  Antwerp  Giorgio  Ghisi  engraved  some  of  his  prin- 
cipal plates  for  publication  by  Cock.  Cock's  pupil  and 
assistant,  Cor- 
nel i  s  C  o  r  t , 
travelled  later 
to  Italy,  and 
won  there  a 
position  of  im- 
portance and 
distinction.  Be- 
sides the  artists 
mentioned,  and 
others  like  them, 
who  engraved 
after  Italian 
painters  or  after 
native  painters 
working  on 
Italian  lines — 
such  as  Adrian 
Collaert,  Philipp 
Galle,  Jan  van 
Stalburch,  etc. — 
there  was  a  little 
group  of  en- 
ijravers     who 


Fig.  63.     Hieronj'mus  Wierix  :  The  child  Christ 
with  the  Instruments  of  the  Passion. 


clung  fast  to  the  traditions  of  the  older  northern  School. 

At  the  head  of  this  group  stand  those  remarkable 
engravers,  the  three  brothers  Wierix.  In  order  to  judge 
their  work  aright  it  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that 
their    native   town,  Antwerp,   at  the    latter    part    of   the 


I40  ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

sixteenth  and  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  head- 
quarters of  an  artistic  industry,  which  supplied  all  Catholic 
countries  with  religious  pictures,  and  at  the  same  time 
exported  large  numbers  of  portraits  and  profane  subjects. 
In  the  production  of  engravings  artists  of  every  rank 
found  employment :  the  master  engraver  finished  the 
principal  parts,  leaving  the  accessories  to  his  assistants; 
and  frequently  father  and  sons,  brothers  and  sisters,  all 
handled  the  burin  on  common  tasks. 

The  brothers  Jan (1549 — i6i5),Hieronymus(i55i — 1619), 
and  Anton  (d.  1624)  Wierix  are  eminent  examples  of  this 
partition  of  work.  The  eldest,  Jan,  showed  very  early 
developed  talent,  and  had  complete  mastery  over  the  burin 
at  the  age  of  twelve.  He  was  twelve  when  he  copied 
Diirer's  '  Man  of  Sorrows,'  and  at  fourteen  he  made  a  copy 
of  '  The  Knight,  Death,  and  the  Devil,'  considered  by  his 
contemporaries  to  be  so  near  to  the  original  as  to  be 
almost  deceptive.  The  Nuremberg  master  had  a  strong; 
and  lasting  influence  not  only  over  Jan,  but  over  his 
brothers  as  well.  In  their  handling  of  tender  and  silvery 
tones,  and  in  fineness  and  delicacy  of  drawing,  all  three 
strove  to  emulate  Diirer.  The  subjects  by  Flemish 
imitators  of  Italy,  Calvaert,  Floris,  De  Vos,  Venius,  and 
the  others  'after  whom  they  engraved,  and  the  formal 
mannerism  of  the  compositions  which  they  had  to  follow,, 
gives  their  work  the  appearance  of  bastard  pictures,  with 
their  great  charm  of  pleasing  technique  often  unpleasantly 
contrasted  with  emptiness  of  idea  and  lack  of  real  artistic 
feeling.  In  respect  to  their  actual  ability  and  method  of 
treatment  the  three  brothers  stand  almost  on  a  level. 
Where  the  signature  is  confined  to  the  family  name,  it  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  the  work  of  one  from  another. 
The  largest  place  among  the  engravings  of  the  brothers 


THE    BROTHERS   WIERIX  141 

Wierix  is  taken  by  their  scenes  from  the  New  Testament 
and  the  lives  of  the  Saints,  the  latter  usually  in  the  form 
made  current  by  the  Jesuits.  The  most  valuable  part, 
however,  of  the  Wierix  engravings  consists  of  the  portraits, 
among  which  the  small  ones  in  particular  show  high  finish, 


Fig.  64.     Hendrick  Goltzius  :  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  (detail). 

and  are  usually  set  in  an  elegant  oval.  Hieronymus  also 
undertook  the  engraving  of  life-sized  heads,  such  as  that  of 
Henriette  d'Etrangues,  in  which  it  is  absolutely  astonishing 
how  he  managed  to  retain  a  harmonious  effect  while 
covering  large  spaces  with  his  close  and  subtle  technique. 


142  ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

The  work  of  the  three  brothers  together  amounts  to  a 
total  of  over  two  thousand  prints. 

Nicolas  de  Bru}'n  was  born  somewhere  about  1570,  is 
known  to  have  been  working  at  Antwerp  in  1601,  and  died 
about,  or  after,  165 1.  He  not  only  engraved  his  own 
original  work,  but  also  reproduced  the  paintings  of  Flemish 
artists,  such  as  Vinckboons,  Bloemaert,  etc.  He  executed 
large  plates  with  a  remarkably  thin  technique,  imitated 
from  Lucas  van  Leyden,  and  in  his  own  compositions  also 
followed  the  style  of  the  same  master,  but  succeeded  only 
in  producing  a  somewhat  ineffective  multiplication  of 
figures.  Much  finer  are  his  large  and  closely  worked 
landscapes,  full  of  figures,  after  Vinckboons.  The  dates 
on  Bruyn's  engravings  run  from  1594  to  165 1.  His  best 
work  falls  between  1600  and  1620. 

The  great  expansion  of  Flemish  and  Dutch  painting 
at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  had  also  its  effect  on  the  art  of 
engraving,  for  which  a  new  period  of  prosperity  began. 
The  traditions  of  the  old  masters  had  become  exhausted. 
The  influence  of  Italian  art  had  for  a  long  time  threatened 
to  estrange  Netherlandish  artists  from  their  true  natural 
impulse,  till  new  masters  appeared,  who  united  foreign  and 
native  elements,  and  guided  the  art  of  their  country  into 
new  paths.  In  the  domain  of  engraving  the  principal 
author  of  the  change  thus  accomplished  was  Hendrick 
Goltzius  (1558 — 1616),  who  worked  at  Haarlem. 

W'ith  an  extraordinary  gift  for  the  technical  side  of 
engraving,  Goltzius  triumphed  victoriously  over  the  older 
close  and  detailed  treatment  and  the  newer,  broader  style 
for  which  Agostino  Carracci  had  set  the  example.  In  his 
early  works  he  imitated  Diirer  and  Lucas  van  Leyden,  as 
in   his  '  Virgin   with   the  Dead   Christ,'    of    1 596,  and    his 


HENDRICK   GOLTZIUS 


143 


Passion  series  (B.  27-38).  Imitative  also  are  his  famous 
so-called  '  Six  Masterpieces,'  in  which  he  attempted  to 
show  how  he  could  compose  and  engrave  in  the  manner 
of  Raphael,  Durer,  Lucas  van  Leyden,  Carracci,  etc., 
equalling  each  master  in  his  own  particular  style.  As  an 
actual  fact,  '  The  Circumcision  of  Christ '  in  Diirer's  style, 
and  '  The  Adoration  of  the  Kings '  in  the  manner  of  Lucas 


outward    seeming,    marvellous 


van  Leyden  are,  in  all 
imitations  ;  but  it  must 
be  admitted — and,  in- 
deed, nothing  else  could 
be  expected— that  they 
lack  entirely  the  quali- 
ties that  form  the  real 
essence  of  the  great 
originals.  Goltzius  is  a 
finer  artist,  and  appears 
in  a  much  more  favour- 
able light,  when  he  fol- 
lows his  own  natural 
course,  as  in  his  '  Son 
of  the  Painter  Frisius,' 
with  the  large  hound. 
His  numerous  portraits, 

sometimes  of  minute  size  and  showing  most  delicate 
work,  sometimes  almost  life-size,  such  as  his  own  por- 
trait with  the  large  beard,  are  all  executed  with  unsur- 
passed boldness  in  the  free  sweep  of  his  line.  No  other 
artist  has  ever  had  such  complete  command  over  the 
whole  scale  of  burin  work,  from  the  closest  to  the 
broadest  handling.  In  his  mythological  and  allegorical 
compositions  Goltzius  works  in  the  spirit  of  the  northern 
imitators   of    Italy,    carrying    their    mannered    treatment 


Fig.  65. 


Hcndrick  Goltzius  :  Portrait 
of  Niquet  (detail). 


144  ENGRAVING  IN  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


to  an  excess  of  eccentricity.  Sometimes  these  plates 
are  engraved  after  Martin  de  Vos,  Primaticcio,  Strada, 
and  others  ;  sometimes  they  are  his  own  composition.  It 
is  only  the  technical  execution,  the  bravura  with  which  he 
cuts   the   copper  cleanly,  strongly,   and  with   the  greatest 

conceivable  ease,  that 
gives  their  lasting 
value  to  these  plates 
by  Goltzius. 

Goltzius  supplied  in- 
spiration to  a  number 
of  artists,  who  were 
partly  his  pupils,  and 
partly  engraved  from 
his  designs.  Among 
the  first  to  follow  him 
most  closely  in  great 
technical  skill  were 
Jacob  Matham(i57i  — 
163 1 )  and  Jan  Saenre- 
dam  (1565 — 1607). 

Another  pupil  of 
Goltzius  was  Jacob  de 
Gheyn  (the  Elder), 
whose  technique  was 
fine,  and  who  produced 
prints,  sometimes  with 


Fig.  66. 


Jan  Saenredam  .  Ceres  (detail). 


unpleasant  mannerisms,  sometimes  spirited  and  interest- 
ing. How  much  of  these  was  the  work  of  his  son,  who 
bore  the  same  name  and  was  an  accomplished  draughts- 
man, remains  undecided. 

Jan    Muller,  another   pupil    of   Goltzius  (working    from 
1598  to  1625),  comes  very  near  to   his   master  in  dashing 


CRISPIN    DE    PASSE  145 

vigour  of  technique.  In  his  engravings  after  Spranger,  de 
Vries,  and  similar  masters  he  seems  scarcely  able  to  satisfy 
his  love  of  bold  and  sweeping,  though  inexpressive,  lines. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  he  had  the  gift  of  copying  Aldegrever 
and  Lucas  van  Leyden,  and  at  the  same  time  of  finding 
the  exact  means  of  expression  on  the  copper  plate  for  a 
painting  by  Rubens,  as,  for  example,  in  his  two  fine 
portraits  of  the  Archduke  Albrecht  and  his  wife.  Muller 
also  engraved  a  series  of  plates  from  his  own  designs, 
which  are  not  particularly  original. 

Contemporary  with  the  School  of  Goltzius,  Abraham 
Bloemaert  (of  Utrecht,  1564 — 1651)  is  another  engraver  of 
influence.  In  his  engravings,  as  in  his  paintings,  the 
adherence  to  Italian  methods  is  clearly  apparent.  In 
contrast  to  Goltzius,  he  imitated  the  "  morbidezza  "  of  the 
Italians  with  delicate  softness  of  m.odelling.  In  spite  of 
its  weakness  in  some  respects,  the  work  of  Bloemaert  acted 
as  an  excellent  counterpoise  to  that  of  Goltzius  and  Muller. 
His  son,  Cornelius  Bloemaert  (1603 — 1680),  followed  on  the 
whole  in  his  father's  footsteps,  though  working  in  France. 

The  work  of  a  single  family,  such  as  that  of  the  De  Passe, 
serves  to  illustrate  the  extensive  scale  on  which  engravings 
were  produced  at  this  period  and  the  manner  of  their 
making.  The  first  engraver  of  the  family,  Crispin  de  Passe 
(died  at  Rotterdam  in  1637),  worked  in  the  style  of  Wierix, 
and  at  times  approached  that  of  Goltzius.  His  sons 
Crispin,  Simon,  Wilhelm,  and  his  daughter  Magdalena 
followed  almost  exactly  their  father's  style,  and  so  too  did 
the  son  of  Crispin  the  younger,  Crispin  HI.  These  last- 
named  engravers  worked  by  turns  in  France,  Holland 
and  England,  producing  a  host  of  portraits,  genre  pictures, 
title-pages  and  illustrations  of  all  kinds.  For  more  than 
ninety  years  they  upheld  the  traditions  of  the  older  style 

10 


146     ENGRAVING    IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

of  engraving  with  its  finer  technique.  Their  combined 
work  between  1587  and  1678  shows  such  complete  harmony 
and  agreement,  that  the  share  taken  by  the  different 
members  of  the  Passe  family  is  almost  impossible  to 
distinguish.  In  spite  of  their  enormous  output,  amounting 
to  over  two  thousand  plates,  they  maintained  a  remarkably 
high  standard  both  from  the  technical  and  artistic  point 
of  view. 

No  artist  who  was  not  himself  a  professional  engraver 
has  ever  exercised  so  far-reaching  an  influence  over  the 
development  of  the  art  of  engraving  as  Peter  Paul  Rubens. 
Like  Raphael,  Rubens  early  recognised  what  valuable 
assistance  the  engraver  could  supply  in  the  propagation 
of  his  work.  To  the  numerous  pupils  and  assistants 
working  in  his  large  studio  Rubens  added  engravers  whose 
task  it  was  to  reproduce  his  paintings  as  soon  as  they 
were  finished.  He  had  the  knack  of  influencing  and 
directing  these  engravers,  without  depriving  them  of  their 
technical  individuality,  to  such  an  extent  that  they  com- 
pletely followed  him  in  style  and  idea  ;  and  he  thus 
gathered  round  him  a  school  of  engravers  such  as  no  other 
master  of  painting,  either  before  or  since,  has  ever  called 
into  existence.  By  means  of  the  privileges  which  Rubens 
obtained  from  the  Stadtholders  of  the  Netherlands^ 
the  Dutch  States-General,  and  the  King  of  France,  he 
ensured  for  himself  the  full  profits  procured  by  the  sale  of 
the  prints  made  from  his  paintings.  At  first  Rubens  had 
to  rely  on  engravers  who  had  been  trained  in  other  schools,, 
and  who,  before  they  came  to  him,  had  already  developed 
too  far  along  independent  lines  to  be  able  to  adapt  them- 
selves closely  to  his  particular  style :  Cornelis  Galle  and 
Willem  Swanenburg  may  serve  as  examples.  Closer  to 
Rubens  in  much  of  his  work  stands  Jan  Muller,  though 


LUCAS    VORSTERMAN 


147 


he  can  hardly  be  claimed  as  belonging  to  the  Rubens 
school.  The  first  of  the  Rubens  engravers  trained  by  the 
painter  himself  was  Pieter  Soutman  of  Haarlem  (born  1580, 
worked  after  1620  at  Antwerp).  His  soft  and  brilliant 
treatment  in  a  union  of  etching  and  line-engraving 
interprets  with  admirable  success  Rubens'  brush-work  and 


Fig.  67.     Paul  Pontius  :  The  Ascension  of  the  Virgin  (detail). 

drawing.  Among  his  engravings  are  'The  Destruction  of 
Sennacherib,'  '  Venus  rising  from  the  Sea/  '  The  Miraculous 
Draught  of  Fishes,'  etc.  Contemporary  with  Soutman, 
and  working  partly  in  his  manner  for  Rubens,  was  Lucas 
Vorsterman,  a  Dutchman  (born  1595,  died  after  1667), 
whom    Rubens    himself    seems    to    have    trained    as    an 


148     ENGRAVING    IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

engraver.  On  the  proofs  of  many  of  his  plates  Rubens 
made  corrections  with  pencil  and  white  body-colour,  which 
Vorsterman  transferred  to  the  plate  with  extraordinary 
comprehension  and  skill.  Among  all  the  engravers  who 
worked  under  the  direction  of  Rubens,  Vorsterman  stands 
easily  first  in  his  facility  for  expressing  the  individual  style 
of  his  master  without  in  any  way  weakening  its  strength, 
and  also  in  his  vigour  and  freedom  of  execution.  With 
inconceivable  fertility  he  produced  during  the  short  time 
of  his  connection  with  Rubens — it  seems  to  have  come 
to  a  close  in  1622,  when  Vorsterman  was  only  twenty- 
seven — a  series  of  highly  important  works,  such  as  '  The 
Great  Crucifixion  '  and  the  enormous  '  Battle  of  the 
Amazons.'  At  a  later  period  he  was  at  work  in  England, 
and  again  at  Antwerp,  but  no  longer  in  connection  with 
Rubens.  A  notable  work  of  this  later  period  is  his  '  Rose 
Garland  Festival '  after  Caravaggio. 

Vorsterman's  place  was  taken  by  his  still  younger  pupil, 
Paul  du  Pont,  called  Pontius  (1603 — 1658),  who  after  1623 
was  under  the  immediate  instruction  of  Rubens.  In  skill  of 
technique  he  is  on  a  higher  rank  than  his  teacher,  being  more 
brilliant,  though  less  fluent  in  drawing.  Rubens'  journey 
to  Spain  interrupted  for  a  time  the  work  of  Pontius.  The 
most  noteworthy  works  of  his  first  period  are  the  'Ascension  ' 
(fig.  6"]^,  '  St.  Rochs,'  the  '  Entombment,'  '  Tomyris,'  and  the 
large  portrait  of  Rubens  by  himself  To  his  later  period,  after 
the  death  of  Rubens,  belongs  '  The  Great  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents.'  Pontius  also  worked  in  connection  with  Van 
Dyck,  whose  style  with  its  evenly  balanced  finish  appealed 
to  his  sympathy  more  than  the  nervous  manner  of  Rubens. 

Boetius  a  Bolswert  and  Schelte  a  Bolswert  were  already 
proficient  engravers  when  they  came  to  Antwerp  about 
1620.     Before  this  time  they  had  produced  a  quantity  of 


SCHELTE    A    BOLSWERT 


149 


work  after  INIiercvclt,  Bloemacrt,  and  others.  Both  were 
excellent  artists,  and  held  fast  to  pure  burin  work 
without  any  assistance  from  etching.  Boetius,  who  died 
in     1634,    came    very    close    to    Vorsterman's    style    in 


Fig.  68.     Schclte  a  Bolswert :  The  Marriage  of  the  Virgin  (detail). 

his  best  plates  after  Rubens,  such  as  the  '  Crucifixion. 
Schelte  was  still  more  extensively  occupied  in  the  repro- 
duction of  Rubens'  compositions.  None  of  the  Rubens 
engravers    had    command    of    such    artistic    power    and 


ISO     ENGRAVING    IN   THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

adaptability.  Without  losing  their  character  as  creations 
of  Rubens,  Schelte's  prints  maintain  their  individuality 
as  independent  engravings  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
work  of  any  other  engraver  after  this  master.  In  his 
landscapes  after  Rubens  the  intention  and  character  of 
the  painting  are  most  sympathetically  rendered.  Among 
Schelte's  best-known  works  are  '  Christ  on  the  Cross,' 
'  The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes,'  '  The  Birth  of 
Christ,'  '  The  Holy  Family,'  and  '  The  Annunciation.' 
Scarcely  less  admirable  are  his  engravings  after  Van 
Dyck,  Quellinus,  etc. 

The  path  indicated  by  Vorsterman  and  Pontius  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  younger  engravers,  who  showed 
marked  ability  without  introducing  any  new  artistic  element 
into  the  reproduction  of  Rubens'  works.  The  engravers 
during  the  last  ten  years  before  the  death  of  the  master, 
1630 — 1640,  appear  to  have  no  longer  stood  in  such  close 
relationship  to  Rubens  as  was  the  case  at  earlier  periods. 
A  more  skilful  engraver,  somewhat  dry  in  technique,  was 
Pieter  de  Jode  the  younger  (1606 — 1674),  who  in  his  best 
work  ('  The  Three  Graces,'  etc.)  approached  Bolswert, 
though  he  engraved  not  only  after  Rubens,  but  also  after 
Van  Dyck  (' Renard  and  Armida'),  Seghersa  nd  Jordaens. 
His  work,  however,  is  uneven  and  often  superficial. 

Jan  Witdoek  (born  1604,  died  after  1641),  a  pupil  of  the 
painter  and  etcher  Cornelis  Schut,  had  remarkable  power 
of  expressing  colour,  but  often  weakens  in  an  unpleasant 
way  the  drawing  of  Rubens,  particularly  the  heads. 
Vorsterman  found  capable  successors  among  his  numerous 
pupils,  Nicolas  Ryckemans,  Nicolas  and  Conrad  Lauwers, 
Jacob  Neeffs,  Anton  van  der  Does,  and  others,  but 
particularly  in  Marin  Robin,  called  Marinus,  who  had  a 
perfect  grasp  of  his  style. 


ANTHONY    VAN    DYCK  151 

The  influence  of  Rubens  was  not  limited  to  line-engraving 
alone,  for  etching  and  wood-engraving  also  owed  much 
to  his  active  support.  In  Antwerp  itself  the  Rubens 
school  of  engravers  did  not  long  survive  the  death  of  its 
founder.  Its  influence,  however,  extended  with  rich  results 
to  Holland  on  the  one  hand,  France  on  the  other,  and 
descended  to  several  succeeding  generations  of  artists. 

It  was  from  his  teacher  Rubens  that  Van  Dyck  obtained 
his  interest  in  engraving.  Under  Van  Dyck's  direction 
appeared  the  collection  of  engraved  portraits  of  persons 
of  distinction,  known  as  the  '  Iconography,'  for  which  he 
provided  the  originals,  usually  in  the  form  of  sketches  in 
grisaille.  These  sketches  were  only  partly  based  on  actual 
portraits  from  life  ;  in  a  large  number,  certainly  in  the 
portraits  of  celebrities  who  were  already  dead  at  his 
time.  Van  Dyck  must  have  used  older  portraits,  redrawn 
to  suit  his  particular  purpose.  The  natural  consequence 
was  that  the  separate  sketches  and  the  prints  prepared 
from  them  were  of  extremely  varying  value.  Pontius, 
Bolswert,  Vorsterman,  de  Jode,  and  other  engravers  of 
this  group  took  part  in  the  execution  of  these  portraits. 
Some  of  the  plates  were  originally  etched  by  Van  Dyck 
himself  (see  below),  and  then  completed  with  the  burin 
by  one  of  these  engravers.  The  '  Iconography '  contains 
in  the  different  editions  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  portraits. 

While  Dutch  painting  was  at  its  most  flourishing  period, 
the  artists  of  Holland  as  a  rule  devoted  their  attention 
to  etching  rather  than  line-engraving ;  but  the  peculiarly 
fine  qualities  of  Dutch  painting  stimulated  the  (ew 
native  line-engravers,  several  of  whom  possessed  distinct 
talent,  to  transfer  to  copper  the  pictorial  effects  of  their 
native  school. 


152     ENGRAVING   IN    THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

Under  the  influence  of  Mierevelt  his  son-in-law,  William 
Jacobsz  Delff  (1580 — 1638),  trained  himself  as  an  engraver 
of  portraits,  his  principal  work  lying  in  the  reproduction 
of  a  long  series  of  Mierevelt's  portraits,  in  which  the 
character  of  the  original  painting  is  most  excellently 
rendered. 

Jan  van  de  Velde  (born  about  1596,  working  in  Haarlem 
till  after  1641  ;  see  also  below)  produced  several  engravings 
marked  by  delicacy  and  brilliance,  particularly  effective  being 
his  landscapes  and  night-scenes  (the  '  Story  of  Tobias,'  after 
Uijtenbroek,  for  example).  Founded  on  his  style  is  that 
of  Hendrick  Goudt  (Utrecht,  1585  — 1630),  best  known  for 
his  highly  finished  reproductions  of  the  work  of  Elsheimer. 

In  spite  of  the  shortness  of  his  career,  Cornelis  Visscher 
(1629 — 1662  ;  probably  working  in  Amsterdam  or  Haar- 
lem) ranks  among  the  most  distinguished  engravers  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  His  work  with  the  burin  is  free 
from  all  conventionality  in  the  arrangement  of  lines,  and 
he  unites  etching  and  line-engraving  with  a  soft  and 
harmonious  effect,  particularly  in  his  own  peculiar  treat- 
ment of  flesh  and  hair.  Of  Visscher's  prints,  amounting 
to  about  two  hundred  in  all,  the  best  are  his  fine  and 
spirited  portraits  of  his  contemporaries,  particularly  re- 
markable being  that  of  the  poet  Vondel,  and  that  known 
as  'The  Three  Beards'  (de  Bouma,  de  Ryck,  and  Scriverius). 
Visscher  was  also  a  most  skilful  interpreter  of  the  paintings 
of  Ostade  and  Brouwer,  in  whose  style  he  produced  some  ex- 
tremely happy  compositions  of  his  own,  such  as  his  '  Woman 
Baking,'  '  The  Ratcatcher '  (fig,  69),  and  other  prints. 

In  the  same  spirit  as  Visscher,  and  with  fine  pictorial 
feeling,  worked  Jonas  Suyderhoef  (perhaps  a  pupil  of 
Souterman),  whose  dated  plates  show  that  he  was  engraving 
in   Holland   from    1641   to  1669.     He  used  his  burin  with 


Fig.  Go,     Coi  ii£liui  \'isscher  :  The  Ratcatcher  i^detail_). 


154     ENGRAVING    IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

absolutely  unrestrained  freedom,  almost  like  an    etching- 
needle,  and  in  his  bold  and  vicjorous  engravincrs  after  the 


Fig.  70.     Jonas  Suyderhoef :  Portrait  of  the  Preacher,  van  Aken. 


portraits  of  Frans  Hals  he  succeeded  wonderfully  in 
reproducing  the  effect  of  the  originals,  even  to  the  broad 
brush-marks  (fig.  70). 


JACOB   HOUBRAKEN  i55 

The  changes  of  taste  in  Dutch  art  of  the  eighteenth 
century  show  a  swift  dccHne.  While  the  remembrance 
of  the  great  glories  of  the  past  was  never  quite  blotted 
out,  all  the  branches  of  art  in  Holland  at  this  later 
period  produced  only  a  few  isolated  artists  who  had  any 
pretension  to  special  importance.  One  instance  of  such 
isolation  is  Jacob  Houbrakcn  (born  at  Dordrecht  in  1698, 
died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1780),  who  made  it  his 
special  endeavour  to 
uphold  the  traditions 
of  his  native  school  of 
engraving,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  combine 
with  them  the  elegance 
of  the  French  school 
which  was  now  rising 
into  prominence.  In 
the  course  of  his  long 
life  Houbraken  executed 
some  seven  hundred 
portraits  after  contem- 
porary or  earlier  paint- 
ings. To  the  very  last 
he  maintained  an  even 
level  of  excellence  in  his 

careful  and  well-considered  treatment.  His  drawing  is 
correct,  his  technique  soft  and  distinct,  the  general  effect 
of  his  prints  bright  and  pleasing.  As  a  portrait  engraver, 
Houbraken  was  in  great  request.  Contemporary  with  him, 
and  also  working  in  Holland,  were  Peter  Tanje  (1706 — 
1761),  and  Simon  Fokke  (1712— 1784),  both  of  them 
merely  weak  imitators  of  French  and  English  methods. 


Fig.  71. 


Dirk  van  Staar  :  The  Holy 
Family. 


156     ENGRAVING   IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

Etching  came  into  vogue  in  the  Netherlands  during  the 
sixteenth  century  somewhat  later  than  in  Germany, 
About  1520  Lucas  van  Leyden,  in  his  portrait  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  used  etching  as  a  base  for  comple- 
tion with  the  burin,  but  did  not  practise  the  new  process- 
to  any  further  extent.  The  artist  with  the  signature 
D*V,  to  whom  tradition  gives  the  name  of  Dirk  van 
Staar  (or  Staaren),  and  who  appears  to  have  worked  as. 
a  painter  of  glass  in  Brussels,  perhaps  became  acquainted 
with  the  process  of  etching  in  Germany.  His  early  plates- 
(fig.  71),  small  in  size,  and  dated  from  1522  onwards,  show 
fine  technique  in  the  delicate  style  of  the  Little  Masters; 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  his  latest  work,  a  '  Deluge  '  of 
1 544.  At  the  same  time,  however,  he  was  working  also  in 
pure  line-engraving.  His  engraved  work  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  B.  van  Orley,  whom  he  closely  approaches 
in  style,  by  greater  directness  and  more  natural  charm. 
Hans  Bol  (born  at  Mechlin  1534,  died  at  Amsterdam 
1593),  a  painter  of  bright  little  figure  subjects  among  rich 
landscape,  occasionally  worked  on  the  copper  plate.  As 
a  rule,  the  Netherlandish  artists  received  their  impulse 
towards  etching  during  their  journeys-  to  Italy,  and 
north-country  etching  grew  to  maturity  as  the  daughter 
of  contemporary  Italian  art.  Frans  de  Vriendt,  called 
Frans  Floris,  who  worked  at  Antwerp  about  15 19 — 1570,. 
reveals  himself  in  his  coarse  and  unpleasant  etchings  as 
one  of  the  earliest  representatives  of  this  imitation  of 
Italian  methods.  Bartolomaus  Spranger  (born  at  Antwerp 
1546,  died  at  Prague  1608?),  and  Petrus  Feddes  of  Har- 
lingen  (died  at  Leuwarden  about  1622),  followed  in  the 
path  of  the  Italian  imitators,  while  Jan  Bouchorst  (born  at 
Haarlem  1 580,  died  1630)  kept  closer  in  style  to  the  northern 
realists  and   the  technique    of   the  older  German  School. 


PETER    PAUL   RUBEXS 


157 


The  landscape  painter,  Paulus  Bril  (born  at  Antwerp 
1554,  died  at  Rome  1626),  showed  in  his  work  a  happy 
union  of  Italian  elements  with  originality  of  conception 
and  a  simple,  effective  style.  Roeland  Savery  (born  at 
Courtrai  1576,  died  at  Utrecht  1639)  might  almost  count 
as  a  pupil  of  the 
older  German 
etchers  ;  so  too 
might  David 
Vincboons(born 
at  Mechlin  1578, 
died  at  Amster- 
dam 1629),  with 
his  few  rough, 
but  vigorously 
drawn  plates. 

By  the  school 
of  engravers, 
who  formed  the 
group  of  which 
Rubens  was  the 
centre,  etching 
was  certainly 
practised,  but 
it  never  attained 
thesameamount 
of  use  or  im- 
portance as  did 

line-engraving.  Whether  Peter  Paul  Rubens  (born  at 
Siegen  1577,  died  at  Antwerp  1640)  actually  used  the 
etching-needle  cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty,  but 
he  is  always  considered  to  be  the  author  of  three  plates. 
The  most  free  and  spirited  of  these  is  a  '  St.   Catharine 


Fig.  72. 


Anthonj'  Van  Dyck  :  Portrait  of 
Ph.  Le  Roy. 


158     ENGRAVING    IN   THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

upon  Clouds,'  quite  in  the  manner  of  Rubens'  fully  de- 
veloped style.  In  the  state  in  which  the  plate  is  known 
to  us  it  has  without  doubt  been  worked  over  by  a 
professional  engraver,  perhaps  Vorsterman.  This  is  still 
more  the  case  with  '  The  Old  Woman  with  the  Candle/ 
while  the  bust  of  Seneca  (a  unique  proof  is  in  the  British 
Museum)  shows  in  its  state  of  pure  etching  a  use  of  line 
that  approaches  very  nearly  to  Rubens'  manner  of  draw- 
ing, Anthony  Van  Dyck  (born  at  Antwerp  1599^ 
died  in  London  1641)  is  of  no  small  importance  as  an 
etcher.  During  the  years  of  his  continuous  stay  at  Ant- 
werp, 1628 — 1635,  he  produced  a  series  of  original  plates, 
which  show  that  he  never  obtained  complete  mastery 
over  the  technique  of  etching,  but  which,  in  view  of 
their  power  of  expression  and  fineness  of  conception, 
stand  at  the  summit  of  his  art.  Of  the  nineteen  por- 
traits that  Van  Dyck  flung  so  finely  on  to  the  copper, 
though  often  with  mishaps  in  the  etching,  the  most  note- 
worthy are  his  own  portrait,  the  portrait  of  Le  Roy  (fig. 
72),  and  those  of  the  engravers  Pontius  and  Vorsterman. 
In  their  later  state  the  plates  were  worked  over  with  the 
burin  by  professional  engravers,  who  added  the  costume 
and  background.  Possibly  Van  Dyck  intended  these  to 
serve  as  patterns  and  examples  for  his  '  Iconography.' 

Cornells  Schut  (Antwerp,  1597 — 1655)  left  a  large 
number  of  simply  treated  etchings,  which  followed 
Rubens  in  the  handling  of  the  figures  and  in  variety 
of  invention  (fig.  73).  Coarser  and  less  attractive  are 
the  plates  of  Theodor  van  Thulden  (Herzogenbusch,. 
1606 — 1676),  in  which  the  burin  has  been  employed 
to  provide  additional  strength,  and  which  must  perhaps 
be  considered  as  partly  the  work  of  a  quite  inferior 
encfraver. 


DAVID    TEXIERS 


159 


That  Jacob  Jordacns  rAntucrp,  1593  — 1678)  was 
the  author  of  the  poor  and  dull  prints  that  pass 
under  his  name  is  extrcmel}-  unlikely.  Probably- 
all  of  them  were  executed  after  Jordacns'  composi- 
tions by  a  minor 
engraver  of  no 
importance.  The 
same  is  the  case 
with  David  Teniers 
the  younger  (born 
at  Antwerp  16 10, 
died  at  Brussels 
1690),  whose 
authorship  of  the 
forty -two  plates 
that  bear  his  signa- 
ture, or  are  usuall}' 
ascribed  to  him, 
may  in  most  cases 
be  absolutely  re- 
jected, and  in  re- 
g  a  r  d  to  the 
remainder  is  at  any 
rate  doubtful.  At 
times  they  have  a 
general  air  of  re- 
semblance to  his 
pictures,  but  they 
are  lacking  in  the 
fresh  expression  of  nature  which  is  displayed  in  his  paint- 
ings and  drawings. 

All   through  this  period   the  landscape  etchings  of  the 
Flemish   School  are  more  numerous    and,   on   the  whole, 


Fig.  73.     Cornelis  Schut :  Allegorical 
composition  (detail). 


i6o     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

more  original  and  pleasing  than  their  figure  subjects. 
The  two  small  etch.cd  landscapes  by  Jan  Breughel  the 
elder  (born  at  Brussels  1568,  died  at  Antwerp  1625), 
establish  by  their  delicate  and  charming  treatment  the 
genuineness  of  the  signature  upon  them,  and  permit  the 
conjecture  that  their  author  was  not  handling  the  needle 


Fig.  74.     Lucas  van  Uden  :   Landscape  (detail). 

for  the  first  time  in  their  making,  although  we  know  no 
other  etchings  from  his  hand.  Freely  handled,  and  in 
comparison  with  his  paintings  almost  broad  in  effect, 
are  the  landscapes  of  Adriaen  van  Stalbent  (Antwerp, 
1580 — 1662),  showing  a  rich  variety  of  scenery  and 
figures.  Lucas  van  Uden  (Antwerp,  1595 — 1672)  devoted 
himself  to   the  picturing  of  the  undulating  plains,  studded 


LUCAS    VAN    UDEN  i6r 

with  groups  of  trees,  that  are  characteristic  of  his 
native  land,  and  shows  a  fine  sense  of  the  relations  of 
tone  in  his  distances  (fig.  74).  At  a  later  period  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  the  method  of  treating  landscape 
for  which  Rubens  set  the  example.  On  many  occasions 
he  etched  landscapes  after  Titian,  following  drawings  or 
paintings  that  had  found  their  way  to  the  Netherlands. 
Akin  to  Van  Uden  in  his  early  plates  is  Lodewyck  de 
Vadder  (Brussels,  1605 — 1655),  who  also  reproduced  his 
native  scener}",  but  afterwards  severed  his  early  associa- 
tions, and  sought  his  model  in  the  Dutch  artist,  Water- 
loo. Ignatius  van  der  Stock,  who  was  still  living  at 
Brussels  in  1660,  seems  to  have  clung  longest  to  the 
older  Flemish  traditions  in  his  broad  and  vigorous  land- 
scape plates. 

The  animal  pictures  of  this  school  are  represented  in 
the  domain  of  etching  by  the  work  of  Jan  Fyt  (Antwerp, 
161 1  — 1661),  the  etcher  of  a  series  of  somewhat  coarse, 
but  carefully  handled  plates,  showing  various  breeds  of 
dogs.  Pieter  Boel  (Antwerp,  1623 — 1674)  was  another 
animal  etcher,  while  Jan  Baptiste  de  Wael  (Antwerp, 
1557  ? — 1633  ?),  belonging  to  an  older  generation,  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  the  Italianised  Flemings,  and  in  general 
reproduced  other  artists'  compositions. 

While  Flemish  art  of  the  seventeenth  century  favoured 
engraving  rather  than  etching,  in  Holland  etching  won 
special  popularity,  and  reached  there  the  full  development 
of  its  artistic  and  technical  qualities.  Almost  all  the 
Dutch  artists  of  this  period  used  the  etching-needle,  some 
of  them  only  occasionally  or  experimentally,  while  others — 
and  among  these  were  a  number  of  the  greatest  masters — 
found  in  etching  their  principal  means  of  artistic  expres- 
sion. 

IT 


i62     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW    COUNTRIES 

The  various  movements  and  tendencies  of  Dutch  paint- 
ing found  corresponding  expression  in  Dutch  etching.  One 
group  of  artists  sought  their  subjects  amid  native  surround- 
ings, while  a  second  found  inspiration  'in  Italian  landscape 
and  southern  life.  In  the  work  of  both  these  groups 
there  are,  of  course,  transitional  and  intermediary  stages. 

The  etchers,  who  found  their  subjects  among  their 
native  Dutch  scenery,  were  certainly  the  successors  of 
the  older  Flemish  artists,  but  they  ended  by  giving  charm 
to  their  landscapes  more  by  sheer  truth  to  nature  than 
by  rich  variety  of  scenery. 

Jan  van  de  Velde  (see  also  above,  p.  152)  used  his 
needle  in  a  simple,  straightforward  style,  without  definite 
aim  at  painter-like  qualities.  His  series  of  prints,  such 
as  his  Seasons  and  Months,  with  their  richness  of  rural 
scenery,  are  pleasing  throughout  in  their  clear,  sharp 
execution ;  but  he  possessed  also  the  art  of  giving 
reality  to  the  charm  of  simple  and  quite  unpretending 
bits  of  landscape.  Jan's  elder  brother,  Esaias  van  de 
Velde  (born  at  Amsterdam  before  1590,  died  at  The 
Hague  1630)  shows  similar  precision  and  sharpness  of 
execution. 

The  landscape  prints  of  Jan  van  Goyen  (Leyden,  1596 — 
1656),  one  of  the  founders  of  Dutch  landscape  painting,, 
appear  to  belong  on  the  whole  to  his  early  period.  They 
correspond  approximately  to  his  style  of  painting  between 
1625  and  1630.  No  particular  advance  is  shown  in  the 
landscapes,  studded  with  large  groups  of  figures,  by  Pieter 
Moly  the  elder  (born  in  London  about  1596,  died  at 
Haarlem  1661).  Herman  Saftleven  (born  at  Rotterdam 
1609,  died  at  Haarlem  1685)  whenever  he  devotes  parti- 
cular care  to  his  plates  shows  great  power  of  rendering 
happily  the  fine  gradations  of  tone  in  distant  landscape^ 


ALLAERT   VAN    EVERDINGEN 


163 


but  his  treatment  is  frequently  harsh  and  coarse.  Jan 
Almeloven  and  Jan  van  Aken  stand  in  fairly  close  re- 
lationship to  Saftleven. 

Allaert  van  Everdingen  (born  at  Alkmaar  1621  ?,  died 
at  Amsterdam  1675),  following  his  master,  Roelant  Savery, 
took  special  pleasure  in  depicting  hilly  and  rocky  land- 
scapes, finding  his  subjects  in  the  Tyrol  and  in   Norway 


Fig.  75-     Allaert  van  Everdingen  :  Norwegian  landscape. 


(fig-  75)-  ^he  years  1645  to  1654  saw  the  appearance  of 
the  majority  of  his  hundred  and  sixty-seven  prints,  usually 
small  in  size,  carefully  and  cleverly  worked.  Everdingen 
also  etched  fifty-seven  illustrations  to  "  Reynard  the 
Fox,"  finely  designed  compositions,  which  were  frequently 
imitated  by  later  illustrators  of  the  poem. 

By   Jacob    van    Ruisdael    (Haarlem,     1628 — 1682)    are 
ten  etched  landscapes,  whose  charming  treatment  shows 


i64     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 


considerable  similarity  to  the  artist's  style  of  painting. 
Delicately  executed  with  a  fine  point  is  his  '  Three  Oaks  ' 
(fio-.  'jG)  of   1646  ;  broadly  and  richly  treated  his  '  Little 


Fig.  76.     Jacob  van  Ruisdael  :  Landscape  (detail). 

Bridge'  and  the  'Two  Peasants  in  a  Wood.'  In  these 
prints  Ruisdael's  artistic  individuality  is  powerfully  dis- 
played in  his  careful  building  up  of  all  the  separate  details 


ANTHONY   WATERLOO  165 

of  the  landscape,  and  in  his  clear,  expressive  drawing.  In 
Ruisdael's  etchings  there  appears  no  trace  of  the  influence 
of  Everdingen,  whom  he  frequently  followed  in  his 
paintings  of  rocky  landscapes  and  waterfalls.  As  an 
imitator  of  Ruisdael  may  be  mentioned  Adriaan  Verboom 
(born  1628,  died  after  1667)  and  to  a  lesser  degree  C,  van 
Beeresteyn  (died  1648). 

Among  Ruisdael's  followers  may  be  counted  Anthony 
Waterloo  (born  about  1618  at  Amsterdam,  died  1677?), 
known  almost  solely  as  an  etcher.  His  numerous  plates 
depict  woodland  views  and  the  undulating  plains  dotted 
with  groups  of  trees  on  the  borders  of  Holland  and  North 
Germany.  The  prints  of  this  artist,  who  was  at  one  time 
appreciated  far  more  than  he  deserved,  are  uniform  and 
mediocre  ;  the  early  proofs  only  of  his  plates  are  really 
pleasing,  later  states  being  all  disfigured  by  reworking. 
The  etchings  of  Roelant  Roghmans,  on  which  his  daughter 
Gertruid  also  worked,  resemble  those  of  Waterloo,  but 
frequently  surpass  them  in  feeling  for  the  finer  passages 
of  landscape  ;  sometimes,  however,  their  clearness  and 
repose  is  entirely  spoiled  by  the  frequent  use  of  dots 
between  the  lines  made  by  the  needle.  Simon  de  Vlieger 
(Rotterdam,  1601  — 1653)  etched  landscapes,  enlivened  with 
figures,  in  the  tender,  silvery  grey  manner  that  characterises 
his  paintings.  Gillis  Neyts  and  Hendrich  Naiwinx 
(Neiwinck)  etched  small  plates  in  a  delicate  style,  choosing 
their  subjects  on  the  borders  of  the  Netherlands  and  amid 
the  river  scenery  of  the  upper  Maas. 

Dutch  art  of  the  seventeenth  century  showed  the  realisa- 
tion of  a  new  element  in  painting — the  power  of 
picturing  dim,  subdued  light  and  the  fine  gradations  and 
reflections  of  lights  and  shadows  in  the  interior  of  a  room. 
This   quality    in     painting   is    called    chiaroscuro.      The 


i66     ENGRAVING    IN   THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

development  of  the  appreciation  of  chiaroscuro  can  be 
followed  fairly  clearly  in  oil-painting,  but  only  incompletely 
in  etching.  Elsheimer  may  be  designated  as  the  first  who 
consciously  strove  to  obtain  chiaroscuro  effects  in  painting, 
while  contemporarily  with  him  Goudt  followed  the  same 
tendency  in  line-engraving.  At  a  later  period  Rembrandt 
succeeded  in  gaining  complete  command  of  chiaroscuro 
both  in  painting  and  etching,  and  made  use  of  all  the 
nuances  of  light  and  shade  as  a  means  of  refined  artistic 
expression.  The  fact  that  Rembrandt's  style  largely 
reacted  on  that  of  older  artists  contemporary  with  him, 
makes  it  difficult  to  sketch  clearly  the  actual  development 
of  chiaroscuro.  Pieter  Eastman  (Amsterdam,  1583  — 1633) 
may  be  supposed  to  have  practised  in  etching  the  new 
method  of  treating  light  and  shade  before  Rembrandt's 
day.  In  regard  to  the  etchings  of  Leonard  Bramer  (i595  — 
1674)  and  Gerrit  Bleecker  (worked  1620 — 1656)  it  may  be 
assumed  that  both  were  already  working  under  the  influence 
of  Rembrandt.  Moses  van  Uijtenbroeck  (The  Hague, 
about  1590 — 1648),  a  follower  of  Elsheimer,  may  perhaps 
be  counted  among  the  forerunners  of  Rembrandt.  He 
etched  and  engraved  biblical  and  mythological  subjects  in 
a  capable  and  painter-like  style.  The  work  of  Claes 
Cornelisz  Moeyaert  (Amsterdam,  1600 — 1669)  is  coarser, 
and  is  probably  influenced  by  Rembrandt. 

Of  marked  importance  in  the  history  of  etching  is  the 
striking  individuaHty  of  Hercules  Seghers  (born  1589,  died 
at  Amsterdam  about  1650),  who  to  some  extent  anticipated 
the  genius  of  Rembrandt.  Adverse  external  circumstances 
manifestly  hindered  the  development  of  his  great  talents, 
but  the  little  work  by  him  that  we  possess  is  pleasing  and 
original  throughout.  In  his  etchings,  which  picture  now 
flat  low-lying    country,  now   fanciful    hilly  landscapes,  he 


REMBRANDT  167 

sought  to  obtain  on  his  copper  plate  new  and  hitherto 
unknown  effects.  He  printed  his  etchings  not  with 
printer's  ink,  but  in  different  colours,  and  by  means  of  all 
manner  of  devices  gave  his  separate  prints  the  appearance 
of  cunning  sketches  in  colour.  Seghcrs'  tentative  and 
partially  successful  experiments  in  obtaining  colour-prints 
by  means  of  copper  plates  were  renewed  a  century  later 
and  placed  on  a  practical  basis.  Fifty  prints  altogether 
by  Seghers  are  now  known  ;  almost  invariably  separate 
proofs  of  the  same  print  differ  from  one  another  in  the 
colouring. 

Almost  every  aspect  of  Dutch  art,  every  quality  that 
helped  to  form  its  character,  is  displayed  in  the  work  of 
that  master-artist  Rembrandt  Harmensz  van  Rijn  (born 
at  Leyden  1606,  died  at  Amsterdam  1669).  The  technical 
ability  and  the  imaginative  power  of  the  school  from 
which  he  sprang  were  widened  and  deepened  by  him  to 
limits  which  only  a  few  select  masters  of  painting  had 
reached  before  his  day,  and  to  which  none  have  since 
attained.  He  recognised  no  divisions  in  art  ;  everything 
pictorial  he  claimed  as  his  own  ;  but  he  investigated  every- 
thing in  the  clear  light  of  truth,  and  on  its  reproduction 
he  placed  the  firm  stamp  of  his  own  personality,  creating 
masterpieces  by  sheer  power  of  mighty  genius. 

All  that  can  be  said  of  Rembrandt  as  the  greatest 
painter  of  this  later  period  may  be  applied  equally  to  him 
as  etcher.  In  both  branches  of  technique  he  shows  the 
same  characteristic  qualities.  The  changes  in  treatment 
of  colour  and  in  subject  which  divide  the  different  periods 
of  Rembrandt's  work  as  a  painter  are  displayed  equally 
in  his  work  on  the  copper  plate.  With  instinctive  certainty 
he  discovered  a  corresponding  means  of  expressing  in 
etching  the  principles  that  marked  his   painting  at  each 


i68     ENGRAVING    IN   THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 


particular  period.  If  we  examine  his  collected  etchings, 
which  amount  to  three  hundred  and  sixty  prints,  we  see 
unfolded  before  us  the  consistent  development  of  his  art, 
a  clear  and  steady  growth  of  power  and  purpose,  such 
as  has  been  shown  by  scarcely  any  other  artist  in  early 
or  modern  days. 

Rembrandt's   first    etchings   were   executed    during    the 

Leyden    period,   but   he 
seems     to     have    com- 
pletely   reworked    at    a 
later      time     the      two 
women's     heads     dated 
1628,  and  it  is  only  in 
this  later  state  that  they 
have  come  to    us.     His 
large  portrait  of  himself 
in     1629     (B.     338)     is 
roughly  sketched  on  the 
copper     with     a     thick 
needle.      He  frequently 
at  this  period  etched  his 
own   portrait  in  various 
aspects     and    positions, 
or  sketched  beggars  or 
figures  in  street   scenes 
from    models    that   came    easily  to  hand.       He   was   still 
struggling  with  technique  ;  his  etching  was  by  no  means 
as  successful  as  he  wished.      About    1630   he    began    to 
obtain    greater    mastery  of  the   art,  and    besides  etching 
heads  and  single  figures  he  placed  on  the  copper  during 
the  year  two  scenes  from  the  New  Testament  (B.  51  and  66\ 
finely  executed,  but  with  an  obvious  uncertainty  in  obtain- 
ing the  desired  effect.    More  powerful  and  vigorous  handling 


Fig.  77- 


Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Beggars. 


REMBRANDT 


169 


is  shown  in  the  five  portraits  of  himself  (fig.  78),  finished 
during  the  year,  and  in  the  numerous  figures  of  beggars 
(fig.  'j'jy  These  last  are  literal  and  unbeautiful  repro- 
ductions of  the  reality  that  appealed  to  his  artistic  sense, 
entirely  free  from  any  touch  of  caricature,  and  showing  a 
trace  of  the  modern  feeling  for  the  realistic  portrayal  of 
the  pathos  of  human  life.  To  the  time  of  his  removal  to 
Amsterdam  in    163 1    belongs   his  first  genre  piece,  'The 


Fig.  7S.     Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :   Portrait  of  himself  (detail). 


Rat  Killer'  (B.  121),  and  probably  'The  Raising  of 
Lazarus '  (B.  73),  a  work  of  large  dimensions,  which  in 
spite  of  its  fine  qualities  seems  still  to  indicate  a  want  of 
confidence.  Rembrandt  made  frequent  alterations  and 
improvements  in  this  first  large  work,  as  is  shown  by 
its  ten  different  states,  all  marked  by  considerable  varia- 
tions. His  'Descent  from  the  Cross'  of  1633  (B.  81) 
shows  a  similar  broad  and  coarse,  though  more  complete, 


I70     ENGRAVING    IN   THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

method  of  handling.  The  uncertain  action  of  the  acid 
on  the  copper  compelled  him  to  reinforce  the  plate 
by  re-biting  it  and  by  the  use  of  the  burin  and  dry- 
point.  To  the  same  year,  1633,  belongs  'The  Good 
Samaritan  '  (B.  90),  a  complete  and  perfect  piece  of  work, 
finished  throughout  with  extreme  care,  though  possibly 
some  details,  such  as  the  dog  in  the  foreground,  may  be 
attributed  to  a  pupil.  This  print  marks  definitely  the 
close  of  Rembrandt's  youthful  period  of  technical  experi- 
ments. In  it  the  etching  is  sharp  and  clean  ;  it  shows 
increasing  employment  of  the  dry-point  and  diminishing 
use  of  the  burin.  Quiet  light  and  soft  shadows  are  spread 
in  tender  harmony  over  the  foreground  and  the  lightly 
drawn  distance.  The  careful  finish  and  detailed  treatment 
that  mark  this  plate  remained  characteristic  during  the 
following  years.  In  '  The  Angel  appearing  to  the  Shep- 
herds '  (B.  44),  belonging  to  the  year  1 534,  they  are 
employed  in  producing  an  effect  of  dazzling  light  in  the 
midst  of  darkness.  Rembrandt's  portrait  subjects,  which 
up  to  this  time  had  possessed  the  character  of  occasional 
studies,  after  1634  begin  to  take  a  more  important  place 
in  his  work.  The  rendering  of  accessories  helped  to  make 
the  personality  of  the  subject  more  easily  recognisable,  as 
in  the  portraits  of  the  preacher  Jan  Cornelis  Sylvius 
(B.  266),  of  Jan  Uytenbogaert  (B.  279),  both  belonging 
to  1634,  and  the  so-called  'Great  Jewish  Bride'  of  1635 
(B.  340).  In  the  years  immediately  following,  as  far  as 
can  be  determined  from  dates  and  otherwise,  Rembrandt 
does  not  seem  to  have  occupied  himself  with  etching  to 
any  particular  extent.  '  The  Gold-weigher  '  (B.  281),  with 
the  date  1638,  is  by  recent  critics  rightly  rejected.  The 
large  'Death  of  the  Virgin'  of  1639  (B.  99),  with  its 
fine    expression    of  character    in    the    faces,    and    another 


REMBRANDT  171 

portrait  of  himself,  arc   Rembrandt's   principal   works   of 
this  period. 

After  1 64 1,  however,  Rembrandt  threw  himself  into 
etching  with  renewed  energy,  and  at  once  found  in  land- 
scape a  new  milieu,  in  which  he  won  the  most  glorious 
triumphs  of  his  art.  To  the  ten  years  from  1641  to  165 1 
belong  almost  all  the  twenty-eight  landscape  etchings  which 
can  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to  Rembrandt.  They  are 
pictures  of  his  native  surroundings,  broad  plains  with  a  fine 
feeling  of  space  and  open  air.  Some  cottages  or  a  group 
of  trees  give  a  note  of  interest  in  the  foreground,  but  from 
these  the  eye  is  drawn  to  the  distant  landscape  wrapped 
in  the  soft  sea-mists  of  the  lowlands  of  Holland.  So 
complete  is  his  command  of  the  etcher's  craft,  so  delicate 
his  perception  of  tone,  so  convincing  the  certainty  of  his 
perspective,  that  we  forget  that  we  have  only  black  and 
white  before  our  eyes  ;  the  prints  seem  to  express  every- 
thing that  a  finished  painting  in  colour  could  supply. 
Rembrandt's  landscapes  are  treated  in  widely  differing 
ways  ;  sometimes  they  are  rendered  simply,  sometimes 
finished  with  extreme  detail.  In  this  last  quality,  and  in 
the  completeness  of  its  colour  effect,  '  The  Three  Trees  ' 
(B.  212)  may  well  rank  as  supreme.  In  'The  Gold- 
weigher's  Field'  (B.  234),  'Six's  Bridge'  (B.  208),  the 
*■  View  of  Omval  '  (B.  209),  and  other  prints,  an  effect  is 
obtained  b}'  the  most  simple  means,  which  further  finish 
could  scarcely  improve.  The  little  '  Landscape  with  a 
Milkman'  (B.  213),  the  'Two  Cottages  with  Pointed 
Gables'  (B.  214),  the  'Cottages  beside  a  Canal,  with  a 
Church  and  Sailing-boat '  (fig.  79  ;  B.  228),  are  gems  of 
etching,  finished  with  astonishing  delicacy  and  with  incom- 
parable skill  in  the  expression  of  landscape  distance  ; 
while  others,  such  as  the  '  Three  Gabled  Cottages  '  (B.  217), 


172     ENGRAVING    IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 


show  a  broad^ 
painter -like  treat- 
ment in  the  brilliant 
sunshine  contrasted 
with  deep  and  power- 
ful shadows. 

During  the  years 
1641   to   165 1   were  also  pro- 
duced  most   of  those   prints 
which    have    brought    Rem- 
brandt to  the    height  of  his 
reputation  as  an  etcher.     The 
most  famous  of  all  is  '  Christ 
healing  theSick'  (B.  74), called 
traditionally   '  The    Hundred 
Guilder  Print.'     In  grandeur 
and  originality  of  composition 
it  is  not  only  a  great  master- 
piece    by     Rembrandt,     but 
the  most  finished  work   that 
etching  has  produced.     Pure 
etching    plays    a   very  unim- 
portant part  in  this  plate,  for   al- 
most all  of  the  work  visible  on  the 
print  is  produced  by  the  dry-point. 
The  finest  impressions,  and  parti- 
cularly the  nine  existing  examples 
of  the  first  state,  alone  show  the  full 
effect  of  the  chiaroscuro  and  the 
perfect    harmony   of  tone.      After 
taking    a    few    impressions,    Rem- 
brandt  submitted    the    plate  to  a 
process  of  considerable  reworking^ 


REMBRANDT 


173 


altered  the  form  of  the  high  dark  vault  under  which  the 
scene  is  laid,  and  made  other  variations ;  so  that  im- 
pressions of  the  second  state,  at  any  rate  the  best  of 
them,  in  many  respects  possess  an  inherent  artistic  value 
as  well  as  those  of  the  first  state. 


Fig.  So.      Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  The  Angel  vanishing  from 
the  family  of  Tobias  (detail). 

The  realistic  and  lifelike  portraits  of  Jan  Six  (B.  285), 
Ephraim  Bonus  (B.  278),  and  the  artist's  own  portrait 
(B.  22),  showing  him  seated  at  a  window  sketching,  come 
very  near  to  the  '  Hundred  Guilder  Print  '  in  style  and 
finish. 

When  Rembrandt  had  passed  his  fiftieth  year  he  seems 


174     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW    COUNTRIES 

to  have  put  still  more  fire  into  his  painting,  and  to  have 
worked  with  even  greater  breadth  of  handling  ;  and  there 
was  a  corresponding  change  in  his  style  of  etching.  His 
biblical    subjects    appear    like    \\eird    visions    wrapped-  in, 


Fig.  8l.     Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  Christ  preaching  (detail). 

mysterious  light :  witness  his  powerful  '  Crucifixion  '  (B.  78), 
known  as  '  The  Three  Crosses.'  Somewhat  similar  treat- 
ment is  shown  in  his  'Christ  Preaching'  (fig,  81  ;  B.  6^]^ 
'  The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds '  (B.  46),  '  Christ  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives'   (B.  75),  'The   Presentation  in  the 


REMBRANDT 


/:> 


Temple  '  (B.  50),  the  '  Christ  taken  down  from  the  Cross 
by  Torchlight '  (B.  'S^'),  etc.  Where  full  daylight  reigns, 
the  etching  is  treated  in  the  broad  sketchy  manner  of  a 
pen'  drawing,  here  and  there  craftily  accented.     This  type 


Fig.  82.     Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :  The  great  '  Ecce  Homo  '  (detail). 

of  treatment  appears  in  the  solemn  and  impressive  '  Ecce 
Homo'  of  1655  (B.  yG  ;  fig-  82);  and  akin  to  this  plate 
are  '  Christ  at  Emmaus '  (B.  8y),  '  Christ  between  his 
Parents  returning  from  the  Temple  '  (B.  60),  etc. 

During  this  period  Rembrandt  showed  a  clear  preference 


1/6     ENGRAVING    IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 


for  portraits  and  biblical  subjects,  treating  landscape  as 
of  secondary  interest.  In  his  portraits  also  the  dominant 
note  is  the  treatment  of  reflected  light  in  interiors,  filtering 
and  working  its  way,  as  it  were,  through  great  masses  of 
shadow.  Of  this  type  are  the  portraits  of  Abraham  Fransz 
(B.  273),  Jacob  Haaring,  called  'The  Old  Haaring'(fig.  83  ; 
B.  274),  Jan  Lutma,  the  goldsmith  (B.  276),  the  so-called 
*  Dr.  Faustus'  (B.  270),  and  finally,  the  largest  etching  from 

Rembrandt's  hand, 
the  print  known  as 
'  The  large  Cop- 
penol '  (B.  283),  be- 
longing to  about 
1658.  Coppenolwas 
a  writing-master  of 
Amsterdam,  and 
Rembrandt  had  al- 
ready etched  his 
portrait  (B.  282)  on 
a  somewhat  smaller 
plate  in  1651. 

Rembrandt's  last 
dated  plates  are 
'  Peter  and  John  healing  the  Cripple  at  the  Gate  of  the 
Temple,'  1659  (B.  94)  and  the  so-called  'Woman  with 
the  Arrow'  of  1661  (B.  202),  both  showing  the  master  still 
in  possession  of  all  his  artistic  and  technical  powers.  The 
'  Peter  and  John,'  indeed,  seems  almost  to  belong  to  the 
earlier  periods  rather  than  that  of  1650  onwards.  So 
Rembrandt's  vigour  continued  still  unimpaired,  as  fresh 
as  in  the  best  period  of  his  most  famous  masterpieces. 

For  a   full   appreciation   of   Rembrandt's    art    a    review 
of  the   different  states  of  his   etched   plates  is  essential. 


Rembrandt  van  Rijn  :   The  Old 
Haaring  (detail). 


REMBRANDT  177 

In  several  cases,  after  the  first  proofs  were  pulled, 
Rembrandt  made  alterations  which  seem  to  have  almost 
entirely  changed  the  whole  original  composition  ;  and 
frequently,  even  after  this  process,  the  plates  again  under- 
went considerable  alteration  and  correction.  Rembrandt's 
ideas  and  intentions  in  making  these  alterations  were 
extremely  varied,  and  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  guess  what 
his  purpose  was.  As  a  rule  he  aimed  at  heightening  or 
reducing  separate  parts  of  the  plate,  altering  the  lights 
and  shadows,  and  so  forth.  The  result  is  that,  in  many 
cases,  proofs  of  the  various  states  seem  like  prints  from 
completely  different  plates.  One  may  take  as  examples, 
his  great  '  Raising  of  Lazarus,'  in  the  ten  states  of  which 
single  figures  are  continually  altered  ;  and  '  The  Three 
Crosses '  (B.  yS),  whose  earliest  states  show  the  picture  in 
full  daylight,  while  from  the  fourth  state  onwards  the  scene 
is  wrapped  in  darkness  and  almost  all  the  figures  arc 
altered.  In  the  great  '  Ecce  Homo'  of  1655,  after  taking 
a  considerable  number  of  impressions  from  the  plate, 
Rembrandt  removed  the  large  group  of  foreground 
figures  and  set  in  their  place  two  dark  arches  with  the 
bust  of  a  river-god  between  them.  Rembrandt  followed 
the  same  procedure  in  many  of  his  portraits,  frequently 
altering  the  costume  and  accessories.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  large  portrait  showing  the  artist  himself  draw- 
ing at  a  window  (B.  22),  and  with  the  portraits  of 
Lutma,  the  Old  Haaring,  Coppenol,  Abraham  Fransz,  and 
many  others.  The  alterations  which  he  made  in  his 
landscape  etchings  are  by  no  means  so  extensive  or 
important. 

Later  critics  have  decided  that  a  number  of  plates, 
which  in  the  older  catalogues  and  by  Bartsch  have  been 
accepted  as  Rembrandt's  work,  did  not  really  come  from 

12 


178     ENGRAVING   IN   THE   LOW   COUNTRIES 

the  master's  hand.  Among  these  are  various  forgeries 
that  have  been  palmed  off  by  dealers  as  Rembrandt's 
work,  and  also  plates  by  pupils  and  imitators  such  as  Bol, 
Van  VHet,  and  others.  In  the  case  of  many  of  the  small 
and  unimportant  works  the  question  of  their  authenticity 
must  remain  open  ;  but  we  shall  approach  fairly  near  the 
truth  if  we  accept  as  genuine  about  two  hundred  and 
seventy  of  the  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  etchings 
which  have  been  attributed  to  Rembrandt.  Among  these 
are  to  be  included  those  prints  in  whose  execution  Rem- 
brandt, to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  availed  himself  of  the 
services  of  pupils  or  assistants,  as  for  example  the  great 
'  Descent  from  the  Cross  '  of  1633,  '  The  Gold-weigher,'  and 
*  The  Artist  drawing  from  a  Model.' 

Numerous  etchers  were  trained  in  Rembrandt's  studio, 
or  followed  him  as  their  master.  His  influence  spread  over 
the  whole  field  of  Dutch  art  during  his  own  life  and  after 
it ;  and,  though  held  in  check  by  other  tendencies  during 
the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  passed  far 
beyond  the  borders  of  his  own  land  and  his  own  period. 

Of  Rembrandt's  immediate  pupils,  who  come  into 
consideration  as  etchers,  his  closest  follower  was  Ferdinand 
Bol  (born  at  Dordrecht  1616,  died  at  Amsterdam  1680), 
who  took  up  etching  at  the  stage  to  which  his  master  had 
brought  it  between  1640  and  1650.  Bel's  treatment  in  the 
numerous  portraits  and  studies  of  heads,  which  form  the 
principal  part  of  his  work,  seems  too  thin  and  loose  ;  and 
this  is  certainly  the  case  with  his  larger  compositions,  such 
as  '  Abraham's  Sacrifice.'  His  chiaroscuro  is  lacking  in 
unity  and  power.  A  right  judgment  of  Bol  and  of 
Rembrandt's  other  pupils  is  hindered  by  the  circumstance 
that  their  etchings  challenge  constant  comparison  with 
those  of  their  master.     J.  G.  van  Vliet  (born  about  1600 


JAN    LIEVENS 


179 


at  Delft,  died  after  163 1),  who  is  known  only  as  an  etcher, 
and  of  the  circumstances  of  whose  Ufe  we  have  no  closer 
information,  may  be  supposed  to  have  become  a  pupil  of 
Rembrandt  soon  after  his  removal  to  Amsterdam.  Vliet's 
work  amounts  to  ninety-two  prints,  showing  careful 
execution,    part    of    them    being    after   compositions    by 


Fig.  84.     Jan  Lievens  :  The  Philosopher  (detail). 

Rembrandt,  part  of  them  original  works  in  close  adherence 
to  Rembrandt's  style.  Not  an  immediate  pupil  of 
Rembrandt,  but  entirely  dependent  on  his  influence,  is 
Jan  Lievens  (born  at  Leyden  1607,  died  at  Amsterdam 
1674),  In  his  large  'Raising  of  Lazarus'  he  affects  with 
extraordinary  success  the  style  of  Rembrandt's  first  period  ; 
his   'St.   Jerome'   is    a    finely   handled    piece.     His    chief 


i8o     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

work,  as  was  the  case  with  Bol,  lies  in  his  etchings  of 
heads  in  the  Rembrandt  manner,  Salomon  Koninck  was 
another  particularly  happy  imitator  of  these  same  portraits 
and  sketch-heads.  Gerbrandt  van  den  Eeckhout  in  his 
few  smoothly  handled  etchings  is  less  akin  to  Rembrandt 
than  in  his  painting.  Pieter  de  Grebber's  coarse  work 
bears  only  a  surface  resemblance  to  that  of  Rembrandt. 

The  chief  master  of  Flemish  genre  painting,  Adriaen 
van  Ostade  (Haarlem,  1610 — 1685),  also  occupies  an 
important  position  as  an  etcher.  Perfect  expression  of 
character  in  his  figures  and  a  fine  sense  of  composition  are 
united  in  his  etchings  with  spirited  drawing  and  a  pleasant 
silvery  effect.  Ostade  does  not  strive  after  any  fulness  of 
technical  treatment,  but  contents  himself  with  the  utmost 
simplicity  of  method.  He  seems  to  have  practised  etching 
only  as  an  interlude,  and  not  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  It 
was  not  till  after  his  death  that  his  etchings  were  issued  in 
any  numbers,  the  plates  having  passed  into  the  possession  of 
his  son-in-law,  a  doctor,  and  later  into  the  hands  of  dealers 
who,  in  order  to  obtain  good  prints,  had  them  worked  over 
by  various  engravers. 

Ostade  himself  altered  and  improved  many  of  his 
etchings.  After  a  first  and  often  incomplete  biting,  he 
would  bring  a  harmonious  and  finer  effect  into  his  plate 
by  gradual  additions  with  the  dry-point.  The  resulting- 
states  of  his  plates  supply  interesting  glimpses  of  the 
artist's  methods.  It  is  only  from  those  proofs  that  show 
his  original  work  undestroyed,  and  never  in  the  later 
retouched  states,  that  the  real  merit  of  Ostade's  etchings 
can  be  estimated.  The  chronological  order  of  his 
etchings  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty,  for  only 
eight  of  his  prints  from  1647  till  after  1670  (the  last  date 
167-  is  illegible)  bear  any  date.     Like  Rembrandt,  Ostade 


ADRIAEN    VAN    OSTADE 


i8i 


seems  to  have  begun  his  experiments  in  etching  with 
casual  and  rapid  studies  of  single  figures  and  small  heads  ; 
his  finished  compositions  are  later  work.  To  1647  belongs 
the  '  Peasant  Family  in  a  Room '  and  '  The  Begging 
Violin-player  before  the  House  ' ;  to  the  following  year 
the    print   known   as   the  '  Father  of  a   Family  ' ;  and  to 


Fig.  85.     Adriaen  van  Ostade  :  The  Backgammon  Players. 

1653  the  '  Grace  at  the  Peasants'  Meal.'  Once  the  artist 
etched  a  portrait  of  himself  sitting  at  his  easel  in  his 
studio.  Particularly  fine  in  these  etchings  is  the  rendering 
of  the  diffused  light  of  an  interior,  in  pleasing  harmony  with 
the  peaceful  surroundings  of  the  scene.  In  his  open-air 
compositions  the  pictorial  sense  is  less  apparent  ;  their 
interest     lies    in    the    grouping    of  the    figures    and    the 


i82     ENGRAVING    IN    THE   LOW    COUNTRIES 

expression  of  character.  Ostade's  two  largest  plates,  the 
'  Dance  in  the  Peasants'  Room  '  and  '  The  Peasants' 
Festival,'  have  been  completely  spoiled  by  later  reworking, 
and  must  be  judged  only  by  the  extremely  rare  proofs 
of  the  first  state. 

Cornelius  Pietersz  Bega  (Haarlem,  1620 — 1664),  a  pupil 
of  Ostade,  used  the  needle  with  great  precision  and 
fineness.  The  general  effect,  as  in  his  pictures,  is  full  and 
powerful,  but  his  etchings  and  paintings  alike  are  often 
cold  and  hard.  Pieter  Jansz  Quast  (Amsterdam,  1606 — 
1647)  was  influenced  by  Adriaen  Brouwer,  and  in  his 
etchings,  which  are  all  finished  with  the  burin,  seems  to 
have  taken  Callot  as  his  model. 

Cornells  Dusart  (1660 — 1704),  a  pupil  of  Ostade,  uses 
every  endeavour  to  show  true  loyalty  to  his  master. 
Dusart's  technique  is  closer  and  drier  than  that  of  Ostade, 
but  in  his  best  prints,  such  as  the  large  '  Consecration 
of  a  Village  Church,'  the  treatment  is  bright  and  pleasing, 
and  the  whole  composition  is  full  of  the  animation  that 
characterises  Ostade's  work.  The  etchings  of  Ostade's 
last  follower,  Nicolaus  van  Haeften  (worked  at  Antwerp 
about  1690 — 1 7 10)  are  inferior,  and  often  verge  on  carica- 
ture. 

While  marine  painting  plays  an  important  part  in  Dutch 
art,  it  is  remarkable  that  etching  found  so  little  employ- 
ment in  this  direction.  Among  the  artists  who  come 
into  consideration  as  etchers  of  seascapes  the  most 
important  is  Reynier  Nooms,  called  Zeeman  (born  at 
Amsterdam  1623,  died  between  1663  and  1668).  He 
possessed  considerable  skill  and  a  simple  and  telling  style 
in  picturing  the  sea  with  its  interest  of  shipping.  Ludolf 
Backhuyscn,  Abraham  Storck,  and  Bonaventura  Peeters 
of  Antwerp,  appear  as  occasional  etchers  of  sea-pieces. 


PAUL   POTTER  183 

Far  more  important  than  the  etchings  of  Dutch  marine 
painters  are  those  of  the  animal  painters.  Aelbert  Cuyp 
(Dordrecht,  1620 — 1691)  produced  occasional  small  and 
sketchy  studies  of  cattle  ;  but  Paul  Potter  (born  at  Enk- 
huysen  1625,  died  at  Amsterdam  1654)  is  quite  the 
foremost  etcher  of  animal  pieces,  just  as  he  is  the  first 
among  all  animal  painters.  In  his  eighteen  existing 
plates  we  are  charmed,  as  in  his  paintings,  by  the  sureness 
and  sharpness  of  the  drawing,  by  the  certainty  and  power 
with  which  he  pictures  animal  forms  and  the  fine  gradations 
of  tone  in  landscape.  With  extraordinary  simplicity  of 
technique,  and  yet  with  wonderful  sympathy  and  compre- 
hension, Potter  renders  the  smooth  coat  of  a  horse  and 
the  rough  hides  of  cattle.  Light  and  air  float  over  his 
landscapes  as  they  vanish  into  the  distance.  His  two 
prints  of  'Herdsmen'  and  'Shepherds'  of  1643,  executed 
in  his  eighteenth  year,  display  him  already  at  the  height 
of  his  power  ;  but  the  palm  may  perhaps  be  awarded  to 
the  five  etchings  of  1652,  which  show  flat  landscapes  with 
horses  of  various  breeds.  The  cleverness  with  which  the 
particular  character  of  each  animal  type  is  expressed^ 
together  with  their  masterly  technique,  makes  these  prints 
rank  as  unsurpassed  examples  of  etching  at  its  best. 

While  Potter  never  passed  beyond  the  bounds  of  his 
native  country  and  had  no  connection  with  Italy,  the 
animal  painters  who  preceded  him,  or  who  followed  and 
approached  his  style,  were  dominated  by  Italian  ideas. 
At  the  head  of  these  artists  stands  Pieter  van  Laer 
(Haarlem,  1582 — 1642),  who  spent  sixteen  years  in  Rome, 
and  produced  there  in  1636  a  series  of  etchings  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  other  animals,  in  which  he  appears  as  a 
forerunner  of  Paul  Potter. 

Potter  may  have  learned  from  Van  Laer  the  use  of  a 


184     ENGRAVING    IN    THE    LOW   COUNTRIES 

sharp  point  and  simplicity  of  style  ;  and  perhaps  owed 
entirely  to  him  his  inclination  towards  etching.  The  two 
animal  painters,  Jan  le  Ducq  (1623 — 1676),  a  pupil  of 
Ostade,  and  Jacob  van  der  Does  (1623 — 1673),  both 
working  at  The  Hague,  are  closely  akin  to  Van  Laer. 


Fig.  86.     Paul  Potter  :  Head  of  a  Cow. 

Next  in  importance  to  Paul  Potter  as  a  draughtsman 
of  animals,  so  far  as  etching  is  concerned,  comes  Adriaen 
van  de  Velde  (Amsterdam,  1635 — 1672),  who  in  common 
with  Potter  possessed  the  power  of  obtaining  a  broad  and 
full    effect    with    the    utmost    simplicity    of    means.       His 


NICOLAES    BKRCHEM  185 

animal  etchings  arc  admirably  drawn,  and  convey  the 
same  effect  of  soft,  warm  light  that  makes  his  paintings 
:so  full  of  charm.  Although  Van  de  Velde  never  visited 
Italy,  his  landscapes  show  a  liking  for  southern  scenery, 
his  knowledge  of  which  must  have  been  obtained  from  the 
.sketch-books  and  paintings  of  his  Dutch  contemporaries. 

Nicolaes  Berchem  (born  at  Haarlem  1620,  died  at 
Amsterdam  1683)  probably  received  his  inclination 
towards  etching  from  his  teachers,  Pieter  de  Grebbcr  and 
Van  Goyen.  He  chooses  subjects  from  the  Campagna, 
and  obviously  endeavours  to  lend  his  compositions  an  air 
of  classical  grandeur.  His  groups  of  animals  are  etched 
with  great  care  and  skill,  but  not  without  certain 
mannerisms,  which  are  still  more  apparent  in  his  treat- 
ment of  the  human  figure,  in  his  somewhat  woolly 
rocks,  and  in  his  very  conventional  foliage.  Berchem's 
etchings,  fifty-six  in  all,  are  sometimes  broadly  and  simply 
handled,  sometimes  show  great  delicacy  and  precision  of 
technique.  His  fame  as  an  etcher  in  older  days  was  due 
to  his  prints  of  this  latter  type,  such  as  'The  Shepherd 
playing  the  Flute '  (fig.  87),  and  '  The  Return  from  the 
Fields'  of  1644.  Only  in  the  early  states  can  the  fine 
qualities  of  these  plates  be  fully  appreciated.  By  Karel 
Dujardin  (born  at  Amsterdam  1622,  died  at  Venice  1678) 
are  fifty-two  etchings,  produced  between  1652  and  1660, 
the  period  of  his  residence  at  The  Hague.  Potter's 
influence  is  particularly  app.irent  in  a  series  of  small 
prints,  picturing  dogs,  pigs,  and  cattle  amid  peaceful 
surroundings.  Apart  from  these,  Dujardin  also  figures  as 
a  landscape  etcher  of  some  importance,  though  only  in  a 
few  pieces  of  Italian  scenery,  nobly  designed  and  carefully 
composed,  and  carried  out  in  a  delicate  silvery  tone. 

These  etchings  by  Dujardin  belong  in  style  to  the  work 


Fig.  S7.     Nicolats  Berchem  :  Shtphenl  playing  the  Flute  (detail). 

186 


JAN    BOTH  187 

of  those  Dutch  artists  who  pictured  Italian  landscape  in 
the  Italian  manner.  This  preference  was  inherited  from 
their  Flemish  forefathers,  but  in  place  of  the  imagination 
of  a  Paul  Bril  there  now  ruled  the  passion  for  absolute 
truth  to  nature,  along  with  a  keen  sense  of  the  value  of 
line  and  tone. 

Bartholomeus  Breenberch  (born  at  Deventer  1599,  died 
at  Amsterdam  before  1659)  etched  views  near  Rome  with 
great  accuracy  of  detail,  but  at  a  later  period  assumed 
a  broader  style,  as  may  be  seen  in  his  principal  work, 
'  Joseph  distributing  Corn.'  Thomas  Wijck  began  by 
etching  genre  subjects  in  the  manner  of  Ostade,  but  after- 
wards devoted  himself  to  Italian  landscape.  Jan  Gerritsz 
Bronkhorst  produced  a  series  of  views  in  the  Campagna 
after  the  style  of  Poelenburg.  Both  as  painter  and  as 
etcher  Jan  Both  (Utrecht,  1610 — 1652)  is  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Dutch  artists  who  pictured  idealistic  subjects 
based  on  Italian  scenery.  With  great  executive  skill,  and 
yet  with  the  utmost  simplicity  of  means,  he  produces  charm- 
ing effects  in  his  sunny  landscapes  (fig.  88).  Jan  Both's 
pupil,  Wilhem  de  Heusch  (Utrecht,  1638 — 1669?)  comes 
very  close  to  his  master  in  his  best  work.  Andries  Both, 
Jan  Both's  brother,  etched  scenes  of  Italian  peasant  life, 
but  frequently  showed  himself  a  clumsy  draughtsman. 
Herman  van  Swanevelt  (born  at  Woerdek  about  1600, 
died  at  Rome  1655)  inclines  at  times  to  the  style  of  Jan 
Both,  at  times  to  that  of  Claude  Lorrain,  placing  biblical 
and  mythological  subjects  in  a  background  of  classical 
landscape.  Jan  van  Ossenbeeck  (born  at  Rotterdam 
1627  ?,  died  at  Rcgensburg  1678)  appears  also  as  an 
etcher  of  Italian  landscapes  and  mountain  scenes.  Some- 
what akin  to  him  is  Adriaen  van  der  Kabel. 

At  the    close  of  the   seventeenth   century   and    at  the 


Fig.  88.     Jan  I'.otli  :  Landscape  (detail). 
i8S 


ROMEYN    DE    HOOGHE  189 

beginning  of  the  eighteenth,  the  Italianised  landscapists 
of  the  Dutch  School  began  to  depart  from  the  truth  and 
freshness  of  conception  which  had  brought  their  native  art 
to  the  summit  of  its  success.  Instead  of  pictures  based  on 
an  intimate  study  of  nature,  we  find  a  growing  tendency 
towards  the  production  of  classical  landscapes  deliberately 
composed  from  reminiscences  of  Titian,  Claude,  and  Poussin. 
This  is  shown  in  the  etchings  of  Abraham  Genoels  (Ant- 
werp, 1640 — 1723)  and  Jan  Glauber  (Utrecht,  1646— 1726). 
Etching  shared  with  Dutch  painting  its  fate  of  gradual 
decline.  A  pleasant  break  in  its  monotony  is  caused  by 
the  appearance  of  a  fertile  and  inventive  illustrator  in 
the  person  of  Jan  Luiken  (Amsterdam,  1649 — 171 2),  who 
produced  a  quantity  of  successful,  though  somewhat  rigid 
and  mannered,  work.  Another  prolific  worker  is  Romeyn 
de  Hooghe  (born  at  Amsterdam  1645  or  1646,  died  at 
Haarlem  1708),  who  in  a  broad  and  easy  style  produced 
large  and  very  effective  plates  of  historical  scenes,  portraits, 
views  of  towns,  and  landscapes. 

The  tendencies  of  seventeenth-century  Dutch  art  appear 
again  in  the  following  century,  but  in  the  domain  of 
etching  little  work  of  any  artistic  importance  was  pro- 
duced. Jacob  de  Wit,  well  known  as  a  decorative  painter 
(Amsterdam,  1695  — 1754),  sketched  lightly  on  copper  some 
of  his  facile  groups  of  amorini,  but  De  Wit  in  style  is 
rather  a  late  survival  of  the  Rubens  School  than  a  genuine 
Dutchman.  The  older  native  tradition  was  upheld  by 
Hendrik  Kobell  (Rotterdam,  1751  — 1799),  who  etched  a 
series  of  coast  views  and  marine  pieces  with  a  power  and 
freshness  of  invention  that  are  remarkable  at  this  period. 
His  son,  Jan  Kobell  (1778— 18 14),  followed  Potter  and  Van 
de  Velde  as  his  models  in  some  not  unsuccessful  animal 
etchings. 


V 
ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

DURING  its  first  period,  lasting  till  about  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  engraving  in  France  showed 
little  originality  or  fixed  purpose  in  its  development.  The 
artists  who  came  to  the  front  depended  sometimes  on 
German,  sometimes  on  Italian  influences,  so  that  the 
French  School  of  engraving  is,  at  the  outset,  noteworthy 
rather  for  its  peculiarity  in  the  inclusion  of  foreign 
elements  than  for  native  individuality. 

In  the  year  1488  there  appeared  at  Lyons  a  reprint  of 
Breydenbach's  "  Journey  to  the  Holy  Land,"  with  engraved 
copies  of  the  large  views  of  towns,  which  in  the  original 
Mainz  edition  of  i486  were  cut  on  wood.  These  copies, 
however,  show  inferior  skill  in  engraving,  and  were  proba- 
bly made  by  a  goldsmith.  Jean  Duvet  (born  at  Langres 
in  1485)  was  the  first  to  obtain  any  artistic  importance  for 
engraving  in  France.  Duvet  founded  his  style,  in  part  at 
any  rate,  on  the  North  Italian  artists  ;  he  appears  to  have 
known  Leonardo's  art,  though  only  at  second  hand  ;  and 
while  his  technique  is  harsh  and  irregular,  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  earl}'  Italian  School,  he  is  at  the  same  time  an 
imitator  of  Diirer.  The  mixture  of  different  styles,  united 
with  abundant  fantasy  and  wealth  of  ideas,  lends  continual 
charm  to  Duvet's  engravings  in  spite  of  many  notable 
defects.     Some  of  his  plates,  such  as  '  The  Annunciation,' 

190 


JEAN    DUVET 


191 


which  shows  I'lorcntine  influence  in  its  concei^tion,  are  not 
without  delicac)-  and  t^racc.  His  twenty-four  illustrations 
to  the  Apocalypse  show,  moreover,  that  Duvet  was  no 
n:iean  artist,  for  in  spite  of  many  reminiscences  of  Diirerhe 


Fig.  89.     Jean  I)u\et  :  Scene  from  the  Apocalypse  (detail j. 

displays  in  these  prints  a  remarkable  amount  of  original, 
though  somewhat  unbalanced  and  unrestrained,  power  of 
invention  (fig.  89). 

Contemporarily    with    this    schcol    of  woodcutters    and 


192 


ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 


illustrators  there  was  working  at  Lyons  a  group  of 
engravers,  which,  however,  never  attained  a  Hke  im- 
portance. To  these  engravers  belongs  Claude  Corneille,. 
a  poor  artist,  who  to  some  extent  followed  the  later 
German  Little  Masters,  but  was  more  influenced  by  Italian 
methods.  The  Gothic  initials  J,  G.  are  now  rightly 
attributed  to  Jean  Gourmond,  who  appears  first  as  a 
printer  in  Paris  about  1506,  and  from  1522  to  1526  seems- 
to  have  worked  at  Lyons.  His  extremely  small  plates 
show  delicate  engraving  and  a  fine  sense  of  composition. 


Ab 


Fig.  90.     Etienne  Delaune  :  Abundantia. 


obviously  influenced  by  Italian  models.  At  times,  too,  he 
copied  the  Little  Masters  of  Germany.  Gourmond  was 
particularly  fond  of  setting  his  subjects  amid  the  rich 
architecture  of  the  Renaissance,  and  of  portraying  its 
intricate  perspective  with  peculiar  care. 

Stephanus  (Etienne)  Delaune  (Paris,  15 19 — 1583)  is  a 
distinguished  representative  of  the  School  of  the  Little 
Masters  and  the  foremost  engraver  in  France  during  the 
sixteenth  century.  His  engravings  show  extremely  deli- 
cate and  minute  work,  with  a  peculiar  manner  of  scattering 


PIERRE   WOEIRIOT  193 

dots  between  the  e^raver  lines.  His  ideas  are  little  more 
than  commonplace,  his  drawing-,  particularly'  in  his 
attenuated  human  iigurcs,  distinctly  weak,  but  his  prints, 
particularl}-  those  of  small  size,  are  dainty  and  pleasing 
(fig.  90).  Like  the  German  Little  IMasters  he  had  special 
skill  in  designing  ornamental  compositions.  Eltienne's 
work  amounts  to  about  four  hundred  prints.  For  a  long 
time  he  seems  to  have  worked  in  Strasburg. 

Pierre  Woeiriot  (born  at  Bonze}'  about  1530,  worked  till 
after  1589)  shows  in  his  figure  compositions  the  influence 
of  the  contemporary  Netherlandish  imitators  of  Italian 
methods,  particularly  of  Heemskcrk,  and  in  his  technique 
is  also  dependent  upon  the  engravers  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  finely  designed  ornamental  borders  of  his  numerous 
portraits  compensate  partly  for  the  dry,  formal  treatment  of 
the  heads.  Woeiriot  seems  to  have  worked  partly  in  Rome 
and  partly  in  Augsburg.  He,  too,  was  a  very  prolific  artist, 
whose  work  amounts  to  about  four  hundred  prints. 

The  importance  of  the  architect  and  etcher  Jacques 
Androuet  Ducerceau  (born  at  Paris  about  15 10,  died  about 
1580)  lies  more  in  his  influence  on  the  development  of 
French  Renaissance  ornament  than  in  his  work  as  etcher. 
In  a  simple  style  and  with  firm  drawing  he  produced  a 
large  number  of  engravings  of  classical  architecture, 
ornament,  and  so  forth,  as  well  as  a  large  work  on  French 
architecture.  Many  of  the  prints  that  carry  his  signature 
are  without  doubt  not  Ducerceau's  own  works,  but  done 
by  pupils  in  his  studio. 

In  the  development  of  French  art  at  this  period  the 
so-called  School  of  Fontainebleau  is  of  particular  im- 
portance. This  name  is  given  to  the  group  of  artists 
who  from  about  1550  were  working  at  the  decoration  of 
Pontainebleau  and  other  royal  palaces.     They  were  mostly 

13 


194  ENGRAVING    IX    FRANCE 

Italians,  at  their  head  being  Rosso  Fiorentino  and 
Francesco  Primaticcio,  whom  Francis  I.  had  invited  to 
France,  but  among  them  were  also  some  native  French- 
men, who  joined  the  Italian  artists. 

The  School  of  Fontainebleau  was  a  forerunner  upon 
French  soil  of  the  School  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo, 
and  exerted  an  extraordinary  influence  upon  the  art  of 
its  country.  Exaggeration  of  form,  deliberate  straining 
after  effect,  entire  opposition  to  simplicity  and  nature 
were  their  characteristic  qualities ;  but  with  them  went 
considerable  technical  ability  and  remarkable  skill  in 
obtaining  decorative  effects.  Various  painters  of  this 
School,  such  as  Antonio  Fantuzzi,  Leonard  Tiry,  and 
Guido  Ruggieri,  practised  line-engraving  and  etching, 
while  a  number  of  anonymous  plates  in  a  similar  style 
show  that  many  other  artists,  whose  names  are  unknown, 
were  also  occupied  in  reproductive  work.  Etching  and 
engraving  owe  no  new  or  lasting  impulse  to  this  school. 
Their  etching  was  broad  in  treatment,  showing  little 
attention  to  detail,  while  the  finer  and  painter-like 
qualities  of  engraving  were  entirely  neglected,  and  the 
whole  importance  was  attached  solely  to  composition. 

A  demand  for  engraved  portraits  was  shown  in  France 
during  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  this 
branch  of  art,  in  which  French  engravers  at  a  later  period 
developed  their  highest  powers,  began  now  to  find  growing 
practice  and  popularity.  During  the  sixteenth  century, 
however,  French  artists  showed  little  attempt  at  originality. 
In  their  portraits  they  remained  entirely  dependent  on 
the  Netherlands  and  on  Italy,  while  in  their  drawing,  as  in 
the  technique  of  their  engraving,  there  is  an  obvious  lack 
at  the  outset  of  the  qualities  that  depend  on  fixed  training 
and  tradition.     Mention  may  be  made  of  Rene  Boyvin  and 


JACQUES    CALLOT  195 

of  the  portrait-engravers,  Jean  Rabel  and  Thomas  de 
Leu  (1560 — 1620),  the  latter  a  fairly  skilful  imitator  of 
Crispin  de  Passe  and  of  Flemish  originals. 

While  French  engraving  during  the  sixteenth  century 
occupied  on  the  whole  a  subordinate  place,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  raised  by  a  few  great 
artists  to  a  position  of  universal  importance.  The 
engravers,  however,  who  now  come  to  the  front  can  by  no 
means  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a  united  school, 

Jacques  Callot  (Nancy,  1592 — 1635)  is  an  etcher  of 
extraordinary  originality.  Though  he  never  considered 
himself  a  Frenchman,  and  indeed  boasted  his  origin  from 
Lorraine,  he  may  nevertheless  now  be  most  conveniently 
grouped  with  the  French  School.  His  adventurous  youth 
had  given  him  opportunities  for  close  study  of  the  life  and 
manners  of  the  lower  orders.  His  prints,  showing  the 
daily  life  of  the  beggars  and  the  rude  soldiery  of  his  time, 
are  often  ugly  in  their  realism,  but  his  grasp  of  character, 
his  power  of  clear  draughtsmanship,  and  his  certainty  in 
the  arrangement  of  complicated  groups  of  figures,  lend  a 
peculiar  value  to  his  works.  He  etches  with  a  fine  and 
precise  line,  which,  particularly  in  his  more  finished  plates, 
gives  the  effect  of  burin  work.  At  the  same  time  he 
possesses  extraordinary  skill  in  throwing  on  to  the  copper 
light  and  spirited  sketches.  To  a  certain  extent  Callot 
appears  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  mannerisms  of  the 
Italian  artists,  among  whom  he  worked  as  a  student ;  his 
biblical  and  historical  compositions  are  unconvincing  and 
unsatisfactory  owing  to  their  deliberate  aim  at  classical 
grandeur.  In  his  grotesque  and  humorous  compositions 
his  imagination  rivals  that  of  Breughel  and  Bosch.  His 
'  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony  '  ranks  as  a  classical  example  of 
abtruse  demonology.      Where  he  works   from  actual   life 


196 


ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 


and  from  his  own  observation  his  fine  talent  for  the  realistic 
reproduction  of  nature  finds  its  best  opportunity  of  display. 
Callot's  artistic  career  commenced  with  a  large  picture  of 
the  annual  fair  at  Florence  known  as  the  festival  of  the 
'  Madonna  della  Impruneta,'  a  plate  unsurpassed  in  its 
rendering  of  an  enormous    crowd.     In    1624   the    Infanta 


Fig.  91.     Jacques  Callot :  From  the  series  cf  'The 
Miseries  of  War  '  (detail). 

Isabella  Clara  Eugenia  summoned  him  to  Brussels  to 
picture  the  Siege  of  Breda,  a  difficult  commission  that  he 
executed  with  complete  success,  giving  a  careful  topo- 
graphical view  of  the  fortress  and  its  surroundings,  and 
completing  the  picture  with  a  lifelike  representation  of  the 
dense  masses  of  soldiery.  His  two  series  of  the  '  Miseries 
of  War'  (fig.  91)  give  a  by  no  means  exaggerated  picture 
of  the  horrors  that  attended  warfare  in  Callot's  time,  and 


CLAUDE    LORRAIN  197 

which  he  knew  only  too  well  from  personal  experience. 
He  may  be  counted  as  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  new 
methods  that  were  adopted  later  with  so  much  success  by 
the  Dutch  Masters,  and  may  rank  among  the  forerunners 
of  Rembrandt.  His  work  amounts  to  a  grand  total  of 
fifteen  hundred  prints.  Abraham  Bosse  (born  at  Tours 
1605,  died  at  Paris  1678)  has  much  in  common  with  Callot 
in  technique  and  style  of  composition.  He  pictures  life 
among  the  upper  classes,  resembling  in  this  respect  some 
contemporary  Dutchmen,  such  as  Dirk  Hals,  from  whom 
he  may  have  learned  his  art. 

Claude  Gellee,  usually  known  as  Claude  Lorrain  (born 
at  Chamagne  1600,  died  at  Rome  1682),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  landscape  painters  and  the  creator  of  the  so- 
called  classical  landscape,  may  fitly  be  included  in  the 
French  School,  though  in  actual  fact  he  worked  almost 
entirely  in  Rome.  His  etchings,  about  twenty-seven  in 
number,  entitle  him  to  an  important  place  in  the  history 
of  this  branch  of  art,  although  not  all  of  his  etched  plates 
stand  on  a  level  with  his  paintings.  In  etching  he  remained 
always  the  amateur,  only  occasionally  taking  up  the  needle, 
and  producing  work  that  was  extremely  uneven.  It  is  an 
accepted  fact  that  Claude's  first  inclination  towards  etching 
was  obtained  from  Callot  in  Nancy,  that  his  earliest 
experiments  belong  to  the  year  1628,  and  that  his  friend 
Joachim  von  Sandrart,  a  German  painter,  first  instructed 
him  in  the  art.  His  'Storm  at  Sea'  of  1630  is  worked 
with  a  fine  point,  and  shows  that  he  already  possessed 
remarkable  certainty  in  obtaining  his  effect ;  but  his 
plates  of  later  date  display  a  notable  weakness  in  treatment. 
His  '  Ford'  of  1634,  broadly  and  almost  crudely  etched,  is 
clearly  reminiscent  of  Elsheimer,  whose  influence  had 
already  appeared  elsewhere    in    Claude's    work.     Akin  to 


198  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

this  plate  is  'The  Rape  of  Europa,'  while  in  the  '  Campo 
Vaccino '  of  1636  there  is  a  strong  note  of  the  influence  of 
Callot.  To  the  same  year  1636,  however,  belongs  'The 
Cowherd '  (fig.  92),  a  fine  rendering  of  some  cattle  wading 
through  a  river,  while  the  cowherd  himself  is  seated  on  the 
bank.  It  is  a  masterpiece  in  its  suggestion  of  warm  evening 
light ;  the  only  other  of  Claude's  etchings  that  can  stand 
beside  it  is  his  'Sunset.'  After  1637  there  was  a  long 
interval  in  his  production  of  etchings,  and  it  was  not  till 
165 1  that  he  again  took  up  his  needle.  After  this  date  came 
a  series  of  larger  plates — '  The  Herd  in  a  Storm,'  '  Mercury 
and  Argus,' '  Apollo  and  the  Seasons,'  and  'The  Goat-herd' 
— prints  that  rank  as  important  work,  and  that  at  times 
approach  the  best  plates  of  his  first  period,  though  without 
quite  equalling  the  richness  and  finish  of '  The  Cowherd.' 

Several  of  the  more  important  French  painters  of  the 
seventeenth  century  used  the  etching-needle,  but  only  a 
few  of  them  attempted  more  than  occasional  experiments. 
The  art  of  etching  owed  no  real  progress  to  them,  for  they 
limited  themselves  to  the  simplest  means  of  expression 
and  seldom  aimed  at  any  largeness  of  effect.  Yet  their 
etchings,  like  genuine  drawings,  have  all  the  importance  of 
authentic  work.  One  may  mention  the  prints  of  Caspar 
Dughet,  Laurent  de  la  Hire,  Francois  Millet,  Sebastien 
Bourdon,  and  others.  Jaques  Stella  found  a  faithful 
interpreter  in  his  sister,  Claudine  Baussonet  Stella. 
Stefano  della  Bella  (1610 — 1664),  although  of  Italian 
origin,  worked  principally  in  Paris,  and  may  be  included 
in  the  French  School.  He  was  a  vigorous  draughtsman, 
who  produced  delicately  handled  little  prints  in  the 
manner  of  Callot.  In  some  of  them,  such  as  his  '  View  of 
the  Pont  Neuf,'  he  approaches  very  near  his  master  in  the 
successful  distribution  of  a  crowd  of  small  figures. 


CLAUDE   LORRAIN 


199 


Claude  Lorrain  :  The  Cowherd. 


Of  greater  importance  than  their  personal  work  in  the 
field  of  etching  is  the  influence  exercised  by  the  French 
painters  of  this  period  on  the  art  of  line-engraving. 
Schools    of    enijravinrr    came    into    existence    round    the 


200  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

masters  of  painting  in  Paris,  or  under  their  direction,  just 
as  they  grew  around  Raphael  and  Rubens.  In  France, 
however,  the  engravers  were  by  no  means  in  such 
close  relationship  to  the  painters'  studios  as  they  were 
in  the  Rubens  School.  The  tendency  of  French  art 
was  towards  the  great  historic  style,  and  the  engravers 
accordingly  devoted  their  talent  to  the  reproduction  of 
the  classical  compositions  of  Raphael  and  other  Italian 
masters  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  prominent  place 
in  this  kind  of  work  was  taken  by  Gerard  Audran,  the 
most  gifted  member  of  a  family  of  engravers  who  for  more 
than  a  century  worked  along  the  same  lines.  Audran 
(born  at  Lyons  1640,  died  at  Paris  1703)  developed  a 
strong  and  individual  style,  showing  a  union  of  burin 
work  with  a  clear,  telling  manner  of  etching  in  regular  sets 
of  lines,  and  obtained  a  vigorous  effect  by  his  skill  in  the 
harmonious  distribution  of  his  composition  over  large 
surfaces.  His  large  '  Battles  of  Alexander  '  after  Lebrun's 
paintings  are  his  principal  work.  Before  this  Audran  had 
produced  four  large  plates  in  Rome  after  Domenichino. 

Lebrun  found  his  best  interpreter  in  Audran,  and  in  a 
similar  way  Vouet  owed  much  to  Michel  Dorigny,  who 
practised  a  style  of  etching  which  imitated  the  appearance 
of  line-engraving.  The  work  of  Lebrun  and  Simon  Vouet 
was  further  reproduced  by  a  number  of  contemporary 
engravers,  such  as  Pierre  Daret,  Gilles  Rousselet,  and 
others. 

The  broad  method  of  line-engraving  on  a  large  scale, 
introduced  into  Italy  by  Villamena,  and  brought  to 
its  perfection  by  Goltzius  and  his  School,  found  in 
France  its  principal  exponent  in  Claude  Mellan  (born 
at  Abbeville  1598,  died  at  Paris  1688).  His  technical  skill 
is   so  extraordinary  that   the  bravura  of  his   style  almost 


CLAUDE   MELLAX 


201 


drives  into  the  background  his  undeniable  artistic  talent. 
He  expresses  form  by  bold,  sweeping  lines,  without  the  aid 
of  cross-hatching,  and  obtains  his  modelling  merely  by 
widening  his  lines  in  the  shadows  and  making  them  finer 
towards  the  light.  This  method  of  treatment  was  de- 
veloped to  such  a  height  of  confident  skill  as  to  enable  him 


Fig.  93.     Claude  Mellan  :  Portrait  (detail). 

to  undertake,  in  a  '  Veronica's  Handkerchief,'  to  render  the 
head  of  Christ  in  a  single  spiral  line,  starting  from  the  tip 
of  the  nose.  Quite  apart  from  a  tour  de  force  such  as  this, 
Mellan  in  his  peculiar  style  obtained  effects  that  lend  lasting 
value  to  his  work.  This  is  shown  by  his  large  portraits, 
often  half  life-size,  and  by  '  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  the 
Wilderness,' 'Jacob  and  Rachel  at  the  Well,'  after  Tinto- 


202  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

retto,  etc.  Particularly  free  and  spirited  are  many  of  his 
smaller  portraits  (fig.  93).  Owing  to  his  long  period  of 
activity,  lasting  till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Mellan  towards  the  close  of  his  career  stands  among  his 
contemporaries  in  France  as  a  survival  of  an  antique  style. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  inaugurated  for  French  line- 
engraving  a  period  of  prosperity  that  only  came  to  an  end 
with  the  Revolution.  This  long-lasting  progress  was 
caused  and  maintained  by  the  popularity  which  the  en- 
graved portrait  began  to  find  in  France.  When  the 
schools  of  engraving  in  the  Low  Countries  fell  into  decay 
France  entered  on  their  inheritance,  and  it  was  particu- 
larly in  the  province  of  portrait-engraving  that  the  French 
School  now  won  the  command  which  for  a  long  time  it 
upheld  with  such  brilliance.  It  must  be  admitted,  however, 
that  French  engravers  lacked  the  freshness  and  simplicity 
of  the  northern  artists  ;  in  portraits  their  principal  concern 
was  to  give  an  air  of  distinction  and  importance  to  their 
sitter,  as  though  detached  entirely  from  the  actuality  of  his 
everyday  appearance. 

Passing  over  Claude  Mellan,  who  represents  a  tendency 
that  remained  without  any  direct  following  in  France,  one 
may  put  at  the  head  of  the  French  portraitists  Jean  Morin 
(born  in  Paris  before  1590,  died  1650),  a  pupil  of  Philippe 
de  Champagne.  He  used  a  combination  of  etching  and 
engraving,  and  expressed  the  modelling  of  flesh  by  means 
of  etched  dots,  obtaining  a  rich,  painter-like  effect,  as  is 
shown  in  his  portrait  of  Bentivoglio  after  Van  D}'ck,  and 
that  of  the  printer,  Vitre.  By  no  one  was  the  influence  of 
the  engraving  of  the  Low  Countries  brought  to  bear  on 
French  art  with  greater  success  than  by  Gerard  Edelinck, 
of  Antwerp  (born  1640,  died  in  Paris  1707).  He  was  a 
pupil   of   Cornelius   Galle,  and   absorbed  also   from  Poilly 


GERARD    EDELINCK  203 

something  of  French  elegance  of  execution.  His  innate 
talent,  and  the  element  in  him  of  northern  style,  enabled 
him  to  surpass  his  Paris  contemporaries  in  vig(jur  of  drawing 
and  freshness  of  conception.  Edelinck  is  rightly  classed 
among  the  greatest  masters  of  the  burin.  He  seems  to 
have  quickly  reached  the  height  of  his  power,  and  to  have 


mm. 

Fig.  94.     Gerard  Edelinck  :  '  The  Penitent  Magdalen  '  after  Lebrun  (detail). 

maintained  his  skill  without  any  visible  weakening  through- 
out his  life,  in  the  course  of  which  he  produced  almost  four 
hundred  plates.  Among  the  engravings,  some  of  them 
very  large  in  size,  which  Edelinck  executed  after  the  Old 
Masters,  the  best  known  are  '  The  Holy  Family '  after 
Raphael,  and  the  '  Knights  Fighting  '  of  Leonardo,  from  a 
copy  of  Rubens,  particularly  valuable  as  the  single  existing 


204  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

record  of  at  least  one  portion  of  a  lost  original.  Edelinck's 
style  lent  itself  more  readily  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
work  of  Lebrun  than  to  the  reproduction  of  Old  Masters, 
and  Lebrun's  '  Family  of  Darius  '  and  '  Penitent  Magdalen  ' 
(fig.  94)  were  translated  by  him  into  masterpieces  of  sym- 
pathetic engraving.  His  fame,  however,  rests  especially  on 
his  portraits  after  Philippe  de  Champagne,  Largilliere, 
Rigaud,  Lebrun,  and  after  his  own  drawings.  Fine  percep- 
tion of  form,  harmony,  and  compactness  of  execution, 
powerful  but  unobtrusive  technique — these  are  qualities 
equally  displayed  by  almost  all  Edelinck's  portraits.  The 
portraits  of  Philippe  de  Champagiie,  Nathanael  Dilger, 
John  Dryden,  and  Martin  Desjardin,  deserve  perhaps  the 
first  place  among  his  works.  He  has  given  permanence  to 
the  features  of  almost  all  the  distinguished  personages  who 
were  attached  to  Louis  XIV's  court.  The  King's  portrait 
at  different  periods  of  his  life  was  engraved  by  Edelinck 
no  fewer  than  fourteen  times,  often  on  a  very  large-sized 
plate. 

Robert  Nanteuil  (born  at  Rheims  1623,  died  at  Paris 
1678)  is  the  most  noteworthy  representative  of  that  style 
of  portrait-engraving  which  may  be  distinguished  as  specifi- 
cally French.  Originally  a  poor  craftsman,  he  showed  his 
first  signs  of  talent  when  he  became  an  engraver  of  por- 
traits. He  began  by  imitating  Mellan's  broad  style,  but 
soon  forsook  it  to  become  an  avowed  follower  of  the 
Rubens  School.  On  this  basis  he  built  up  his  individual 
style,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  harmony,  softness,  and 
brilliance  of  effect.  Against  a  simply  treated  background 
in  an  equally  simple  border  his  heads  and  half-lengths 
stand  out  with  distinction  and  repose.  Van  Dyck  is  here 
his  master.  He  devotes  particular  care  to  the  costume,, 
which   is  duly   subordinate   but    finely   calculated   to    give 


ROBERT    XANTEUIL 


20; 


Fig.  95.      Robert  Nanteuil :  Portrait  of  Nicolas  Foucquct  (details 

prominence  to  the  head,  on  which  the  engraver  concentrates 
his  entire  skill.  Nanteuil  is  a  master  in  his  treatment  and 
his  modelling  of  flesh,  which  he  expressed  by  a  system  of 
delicate  lines  running  off  to  a  sharp  point.      In  most  cases 


206  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

Nanteuil  engraved  his  own  drawings,  made  from  the  life. 
His  portraits  (fig.  95)  were  considered  absolutely  true  to 
nature  by  his  contemporaries,  and  to  us  also  they  bear  an 
aspect  of  convincing  truth,  if  we  overlook  the  straining 
after  effect  which  is  peculiar  to  the  French  art  of  the  time. 
Nanteuil  much  more  frequently  engraved  portraits  of  men 
than  of  women  ;  those  of  Pomponius  de  Bellieyre,  Jean 
Loret,  and  the  Marquis  of  Castelnau,  count  among  his 
most  important  prints.  In  his  attempt  to  engrave  por- 
traits of  life-size,  or  larger,  he  was  unable  to  triumph  over 
the  limits  that  the  nature  of  engraving  itself  imposes  ;  yet 
in  his  life-size  bust  of  Louis  XIV  he  made  his  burin  serve 
for  the  production  of  a  most  remarkable  work. 

The  brothers  Francois  and  Nicolas  de  Poilly  of  Abbe- 
ville rank  in  importance  along  with  Edelinck  and  Nanteuil. 
Francois  (born  1622,  died  in  Paris  1693)  received  his  train- 
ing in  Italy,  where  he  worked  after  Italian  masters. 
During  his  later  residence  in  Paris  his  engravings  were 
mainly  portraits,  executed  in  a  sparkling,  but  somewhat 
dry  style.  He  was  surpassed  by  his  younger  brother  and 
pupil  Nicolas  (born  1626,  died  in  Paris  1690),  whose  hand- 
ling was  extraordinarily  clear  and  precise.  The  latter's 
portraits  are  as  a  rule  skilful  and  pleasing,  but  fail  to  give 
expression  to  the  finer  traits  of  character. 

The  brothers  Poilly  laid  too  much  stress  on  the  technical 
side  of  engraving,  but  by  Antoine  Masson  (born  at  Louvry 
1636,  died  at  Paris  1700)  technique  was  still  more  strongly 
accentuated.  For  his  vigorous  burin  work  he  may  almost 
be  placed  beside  Goltzius,  but  his  narrow  artistic  outlook 
and  his  early  training  as  a  goldsmith  lend  a  somewhat 
mechanical  air  to  his  work.  One  cannot,  however,  help 
recognising  the  merit  of  such  portraits  as  those  of  Guillaume 
de  Brisacier  and  the  Duchess  of  Guise  ;    while  his  most 


PIETER    VAX    SCHUPPEN  207 

important  piece  of  work,  '  Christ  at  Emmaus  '  after  Titian, 
is  a  remarkable  interpretation  of  the  Venetian  master's 
painting. 

Pieter  van  Schuppen  (born  at  Antwerp  1623,  died  1702) 
came  to  Paris  at  the  same  time  as  tldelinck,  and  along 
with  him  is  the  most  prominent  representative  of  the 
school  of  engravers  from  the  Low  Countries,  who  partly 
adapted  themselves  to  the  demands  of  French  taste,  and 
partly  impressed  their  own  personality  on  French  art. 
Van  Schuppen  won  his  chief  success  as  an  engraver 
of  portraits,  his  work  being  broad  and  the  tones  skilfully 
rendered.  Akin  to  him  is  his  somewhat  younger  fellow- 
countryman,  Nicolas  Pitau.  Mention  must  also  be  made 
of  the  French  engravers,  Jean  Lenfant,  Antoine  Trouvain 
and  Jean  Louis  Roullet. 

While  portrait-engravings  have  handed  down  the  out- 
ward appearance  of  almost  every  person  of  importance 
in  the  France  of  Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV,  these  are 
supplemented  to  some  extent  by  magnificent  plates  of 
large  size,  such  as  the  '  Oath  of  Louis  XV  at  his 
Coronation,'  which  serve  to  record  the  historical  events, 
ceremonies,  and  festivities  of  the  period  with  the  utmost 
exactness  of  costume,  surroundings,  and  all  accessories. 
Another  feature  of  the  time  was  the  popularity  of 
Almanacks,  consisting  of  a  printed  sheet  containing  a 
calendar  for  the  year  enclosed  in  a  most  richly  engraved 
border,  often  of  enormous  size.  Similar  to  these  are  the 
academical  Theses,  records  of  the  exposition  of  some 
learned  treatise,  whose  text  is  displayed  on  sheets  sur- 
rounded by  all  manner  of  engraved  allegorical  decorations 
and  devices.  Among  many  inferior  engravers  some 
artists  of  repute  such  as  Edelinck  and  Xanteuil  worked  on 
such  theses,  the  plates  for  which,  owing  to  the  costliness 


208  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

of  their  production,  were  frequcnth'  made  to  serve  for  more 
than  one  occasion. 

The  extraordinar)'  activity  in  architectural  work  and  the 
keen  interest  taken  in  all  the  ornamental  arts  gave  rise  to 
magnificent  publications  with  large  engravings  picturing 
royal  buildings  and  their  decoration.  Engraved  orna- 
ment found  a  distinguished  exponent  in  Jean  Lepautre 
(Paris,  1618 — 1682),  who  etched  his  own  and  others' 
designs  in  a  soft,  easy  and  fluent  style,  with  such  inex- 
haustible fertility  that  he  left  over  two  thousand  plates. 
His  contemporary,  Jean  Berain,  was  more  a  follower  of 
the  classical  school,  and  made  designs  in  the  style  of 
Raphael's  Loggie. 

With  Louis  XIV  originated  the  idea  of  producing  a 
royal  publication  on  an  unprecedented  scale,  comprising 
engravings  of  all  the  important  works  of  art  of  his  own 
and  earlier  times,  the  paintings  in  the  ro}-al  palaces,  the 
palaces  themselves,  the  royal  gardens,  and  also  the 
principal  public  buildings.  The  plan  never  reached 
finality,  but  the  plates  which  were  collected  for  the 
purpose  served  as  the  foundation  of  the  Chalcographie 
du  Louvre,  an  institution  intended  for  the  promotion 
of  engraving  and  for  the  control  of  the  printing  and 
publication  of  engravings  of  national  interest  or  im- 
portance. This  institution  has  survived  to  the  present 
day,  and  still  pursues  essentially  its  original  aims. 

No  noticeable  change  came  over  French  engraving  with 
the  turn  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  tradition  of  the  old  century  lived  on  into  the  new 
without  at  first  showing  any  sign  of  weakness.  On 
comparing  the  total  results  of  both  periods,  however,  we 
arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  seventeenth  century  was 
a  period  of  more  actual  strength  and  originality,  while  in 


ENGRAVERS    AFTER   WATTEAU         209 

the  eighteenth  century  a  happy  knack  in  the  production 
of  pleasing  effects  too  often  took  the  place  of  genuine 
artistic  power.  The  foreign  strain,  which  French  engravers 
had  introduced  from  the  Low  Countries  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  now  lacking.  The  French  School  began  to 
assume  the  command,  and  brilliantly  maintained  its  high 
position  until  the  advent  of  the  grave  political  catastrophes 
that  marked  the  close  of  the  century.  English  art  alone 
stood  aloof  and  independent  from  the  art  of  France. 

During  his  short  life  Antoine  Watteau  (1684 — 1721)  was 
the  creator  of  paintings  which  placed  before  the  e}-es  of 
the  aristocracy  of  his  time  an  idealised  picture  of  their 
daily  life  ;  and  in  the  reproduction  of  these  paintings 
engravers  found  a  profitable  task.  Watteau  founded  no 
school  of  engravers  in  the  sense  that  Rubens  did,  but 
nevertheless  his  pictures  served  as  a  source  of  inspiration 
to  a  group  of  engravers  who  worked  around  him.  As 
a  school  they  followed  mainly  the  track  marked  out  b>' 
Gerard  Audran.  The  main  lines  and  essential  features  of 
the  picture  are  first  put  in  with  definite  sets  of  firm  and 
clear-etched  lines,  and  the  intermediary  passages  are 
tenderly  filled  by  the  burin  with  fine  expression  of  tone. 
The  immediate  pupils  of  Gerard,  such  as  his  nephew, 
Benoit  Audran,  and  Nicolas  Henry  Tardieu,  are  the  most 
important  of  the  Watteau  engravers.  Tardieu  in  particular 
had  a  remarkable  gift  for  happily  expressing  the  silvery 
atmosphere  of  the  master's  painting  (fig.  96).  '  The  Em- 
barkation for  Cythera,'  which  conveys  with  surprising 
success  the  romantic  charm  of  the  original,  may  rank  as  his 
principal  work.  Benoit  xAudran  is  another  noteworthy 
interpreter  of  Watteau,  but  the  general  effect  of  his  plates 
is  not  so  sparkling  or  fine.  Close  to  him  in  style  come 
Laurent  Cars  and  Pierre  Avelinc,  while  other  members  of 

14 


210 


ENGRAVING    IN   FRANCE 


the  group  are  Nicolas  de  Larmessin,  Charles  Nicolas 
Cochin  the  elder,  and  Michel  Aubert.  The  central  point 
of  interest  in  the  engraved  work  after  Watteau  lies  in  the 
scenes  from  the  life  of  the  court  and  the   aristocracy,   the 


Fig.  96.     Nicolas  Henri  Tardieu  :   'A  Picnic'  after  Watteau  (detail), 

so-called  Fetes  Galantes,  taking  place  against  a  background 
of  park  or  landscape  scenery  ;  and  just  as  Watteau  was  a 
fine  landscape  painter,  so  in  their  treatment  of  landscape 
his  engravers  show  particular  skill.  Every  portion  of 
Watteau's  work,  his  ornamental  designs,  his  drawings  and 


GREUZE    AND    VERXET  211 

his  sketches,  were  reproduced  by  engraving.  One  of  the 
painter's  admirers,  the  collector  Jean  de  Julienne,  produced 
a  magnificent  edition  of  the  collected  prints  after  Wattcau 
by  the  artists  mentioned  and  by  other  engravers,  such  as 
Louis  Surugue,  Jean  Philippe  Lebas,  Bernard  Lepicie,  etc. 
The  drawings  of  Francois  Boucher  were  also  transferred  to 
copper  by  the  Comte  de  Caylus  and  by  Julienne  himself, 

Watteau's  followers,  Lancret  and  Pater,  had  compara- 
tively small  influence  on  engraving  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  principal  painters  of  genre  pictures  of  middle-class  life, 
Jean  Simeon,  Chardin,  and  Jean  Baptiste  Greuze,  gave  no 
little  employment  to  the  engravers  of  their  time.  Greuze's 
manner  was  particularly  well  rendered  by  Jean  Jacques 
Flipart  in  a  combination  of  etching  and  line-engraving. 

Francois  Boucher's  compositions  were  extensively  re- 
produced by  the  same  artists  who  had  previously  worked 
after  Watteau.  The  landscape  painter,  Claude  Joseph 
Vernet,  also  opened  up  a  fertile  field  for  a  number  of 
engravers  in  the  reproduction  of  his  large  paintings,  which 
were  so  highly  treasured  at  the  time  of  their  production. 
The  most  important  of  the  many  engravers  after  Vernet 
is  Jean  Joseph  Balechou,  whose  best  work  is  Vernet's 
famous  piece  '  The  Storm.' 

The  reproduction  of  paintings  by  the  Old  Masters  formed 
a  large  portion  of  the  work  of  French  engravers  during 
the  eighteenth  century.  They  engraved  not  only  the 
pictures  of  the  classical  Italian  Schools,  already  well 
known  in  print  form,  but  also  those  of  seventeenth- 
century  Dutchmen,  and  especially  the  work  of  genre 
painters  such  as  Terborch,  Netscher,  Teniers,  and  Wou- 
werman.  Philippe  Lebas'  fine  choice  of  means  and  skill 
of  execution  made  him  a  particularly  successful  interpreter 
of  Wouwerman's  work. 


212  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

Hyacinthe  Rigaud  and  Nicolas  de  Largilliere,  the  prin- 
cipal portrait-painters  of  the  period,  exercised  far-reaching 
influence  on  portrait-engraving,  which  still  remained  the 
main  province  of  engravers'  work. 

For  almost  a  century  the  lead  among  the  portraitists 
was  taken  by  the  Drevet  family  of  engravers — Pierre 
Drevet  (1663— 1738),  his  son  Pierre  Imbert  Drevet  (1697 — 
1739),  and  his  nephew  Claude  Drevet  (about  1705 — 1782). 
Pierre  Drevet's  talent  descended  unweakened  to  his  son, 
and  appeared  again,  though  with  some  loss  of  vigour,  in 
his  nephew.  The  Drevets  worked  with  the  burin  only  in 
a  style  resembling  that  of  Nanteuil,  yet  Pierre  and  Pierre 
Imbert  surpassed  in  their  engraved  work  all  the  painter- 
like effects  that  their  predecessors  had  obtained.  They 
not  only  worked  with  great  precision  and  delicacy,  but  in 
the  rendering  of  the  actual  texture  and  material  of  natural 
objects  they  obtained  varieties  of  tone  and  methods  of 
expression  that  were  hitherto  unknown.  Flesh,  silk,  lace, 
fur,  are  rendered  by  them  with  realistic  exactness,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  whole  effect  is  absolutely  harmonious 
(fig.  97).  Pierre  Drevet's  talent  seems  to  have  reached  its 
full  completion  in  1696  with  a  portrait  of  '  Antoine 
Arnauld '  ;  his  portrait  of  Colbert  in  1700  shows  him  at 
the  very  summit  of  his  art.  Drevet,  however,  was  strictl)' 
dependent  on  the  paintings  which  fell  to  him  to  engrave, 
and  his  prints  accordingly  have  an  uneven  value  cor- 
responding to  that  of  the  pictures  on  which  they  are 
based.  The  principal  works  of  his  later  period  are  the 
full-length  portraits  of  Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV  after 
Rigaud. 

Pierre  Imbert  Drevet  began  his  career  by  engraving  after 
Lebrun  ;  in  1718  he  finished  a  small  plate  engraved  with 
extreme   daintiness   and   skill,   showing   '  Bishop    Fressan 


Fig  97.     Pierre  i»r<.\tt     K   u  m  ct  Robert  de  Cotte  (detail) 
213 


2  14  ENGRAVING    IN   FRANCE 

kneeling  before  the  Madonna  ' ;  in  1723  he  completed  his 
portrait  of  Bossuet_after  Rigaud,  perhaps  the  finest  of  all 
the  engraved  portraits  of  France,  and  in  the  following 
year  his  almost  equally  excellent  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Dubois. 

Claude  Drevet  followed  the  style  of  his  uncle  and  of 
Pierre  Imbert,  though  with  less  successful  results.  By 
sedulously  maintaining  the  traditions  of  the  Drevet  family 
he  exercised  considerable  influence  on  the  artists,  such 
as  DauUe,  who  surrounded  him.  Claude  Drevet  in  his 
earlier  days  also  engraved  after  Lebrun,  and  took  part  in 
the  execution  of  the  large  plate  picturing  the  '  Anointing 
of  Louis  XV  at  Rheims.'  The  rare  union  of  skilful 
technique  and  genuine  artistic  feeling  which  distinguishes 
the  works  of  the  two  older  Drevets  does  not  appear  in 
the  work  of  Claude  or  any  other  of  their  successors.  Too 
much  stress  came  to  be  laid  on  the  technical  renderin"-  of 
externals  and  accessories,  frequently  resulting  in  metallic 
hardness.  This  fault  mars  the  work  of  otherwise  skilled 
engravers  such  as  Jean  Daulle  (1703— 1763)  and  Jean 
Joseph  Balechou  (17 19 — 1764). 

In  the  domain  of  pure  burin  work  the  master  of  most 
influence  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
is  Georg  Wille  (born  near  Giessen,  171 5  ;  died  in  Paris, 
1807).  His  great  talent  in  the  technical  side  of  engraving 
deceived  his  contemporaries,  and  hides  in  a  remarkable 
manner  his  lack  of  genuine  training  and  of  true  artistic 
feeling.  In  his  youth  Wille  came  to  Paris  self-taught,  and 
remained  there  during  his  whole  life.  He  lays  his  graver- 
lines  with  painful  clearness,  adapting  them  with  scrupulous 
care  to  the  nature  of  the  object  he  represents.  His 
drawing  accordingly  is  dry  and  lifeless,  but  the  outward 
perfection  of  his   work  assured  him  of  his  position   as   a 


GEORG   WILLP: 


2  I 


valued  master  and  teacher  almost  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
To  his  numerous  followers  Wille  set  the  example  of 
strivinij  above  all  for  absolute  regularity  in  the  laying  of 
engraved  lines  with  almost  mechanical  exactness  ;  and  it 


I'lu.  (jS,     (^L-org  Willc:    '  Txij-  blowing  Soap  Bubbles,'  after 
Caspar  Nctscher  (detail). 

was  this  influence  that  helped  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
decline  of  the  art  of  line-engraving.  Wille  reproduced 
several  pictures  by  Netscher  (fig.  98),  Mieris,  G.  Dow,  etc. 
One  of  his  most  famous  plates  is  the  '  Paternal  Advice,' 


2i6  ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 

after  Terburg,  in  which  the  sheen  of  the  silk  dress  worn 
by  the  lady  standing  in  the  foreground  is  rendered  with 
admirable  truth.  Wille  often  engraved  paintings  by 
C.  W.  E.  Dietrich,  whom  he  held  in  high  esteem.  Among 
other  excellent  plates  may  be  mentioned  his  portraits  of 
Frederick  the  Great  after  Pesne  and  of  Saint-Florentin 
after  Tocque. 

In  opposition  to  Audran  and  the  engravers  of  the 
Watteau  School  Wille  represents  the  firm  principle  that 
recognises  the  burin  as  the  only  suitable  tool  for  the 
engraver.  His  successors  worked  in  the  same  spirit  as 
representatives  of  a  tendency  bound  to  become  classical. 
Through  pupils  and  sons  of  pupils  the  influence  of  Wille 
has  lasted  on  into  our  own  time. 

Wille's  younger  contemporary,  Jean  Massard  (1740 — 
1822),  worked  under  his  influence,  but  with  much  greater 
softness  of  treatment,  and  his  '  Broken  Pitcher '  after 
Greuze  is  reminiscent  of  Drevet.  Massard's  '  Death  of 
Socrates  '  after  David  may  rank  as  a  pattern  of  right 
interpretation  of  the  classical  school  of  painting. 

Jean  Guillaume  Bervic  (1756 — 1822)  combines  the  best 
qualities  of  Wille  with  considerably  greater  freedom  of 
style.  After  an  unimportant  original  he  engraved  his 
famous  portrait  of  Louis  XVI,  indisputably  a  masterpiece 
of  French  engraving  of  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  their  own  kind  his  '  Education  of  Achilles' 
after  J.  B.  Regnault,  and  his  '  Deianira '  after  Guido  Reni, 
deserve  to  become  classical.  During  his  long  life  Bervic 
produced  only  fifteen  plates,  and  by  his  slow  manner  of 
engraving  he  inaugurated  the  laborious  style,  utterly 
hostile  to  all  artistic  freshness,  which  has  since  become 
familiar  in  line-engraving.  Bervic's  pupils  Paolo  Toschi, 
Louis    Henriquel-Dupont,   and    Raphael    Urbin    Massard, 


BEAUVARLET:   FICQUET :   GRATELOUP     217 

son  of  the  elder  Massard,  were  the  principal  engravers 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Another  of 
Wille's  pupils,  Pierre  Alexandre  Tardieu  (1756 — 1844), 
was  distinguished  as  an  engraver  of  portraits  (among  them 
Marie  Antoinette  as  a  Vestal,  Barras,  etc.).  Tardieu's 
pupil,  Auguste  Boucher-Desnoyers  (1779 — 1857),  upheld 
the  tradition  of  the  French  School  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  his  polished  and  sparkling  style,  and  the 
school  which  he  formed  lasts  to  our  own  time. 

Independent  of  VVille,  but  with  an  art  related  to  his,  is 
Jacques-Firmin  Beauvarlet  (173 1  — 1797),  who  has  a  happy 
knack  of  concealing  spiritless  drawing  by  means  of  refined 
and  sparkling  execution.  His  plates  are  after  Boucher, 
Fragonard,  portraits  of  Clairon,  Mme  Du  Barry,  etc.). 

The  art  of  miniature  painting,  principally  of  portraits, 
in  enamel  and  in  water-colour,  that  flourished  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  gave  the  engravers  an  opportunity  of 
testing  their  skill  in  the  execution  of  minute  details. 
Goltzius  and  the  brothers  Wierix  had  to  a  certain  extent 
set  the  example  in  their  small  portraits.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished of  these  little  masters  of  engraving  is  Etienne 
Ficquet  (Paris,  17 19 — 1794),  who  was  a  pupil  of  Georg 
Friedrich  Schmidt  during  the  latter's  residence  in  Paris, 
and  who  combined  in  a  remarkable  measure  purity  of 
technique  and  artistic  feeling.  His  work  is  in  no  way 
thin  or  worried,  but  absolutely  free,  and  apparently  never 
carried  to  particular  finish.  It  may  perhaps  be  character- 
ised as  the  execution  of  Nanteuil  or  Drevet  on  a  much 
smaller  scale.  In  minute  work  Ficquet  is  surpassed  by  an 
amateur,  Jean  Baptiste  Grateloup  (Paris,  1735 — 18 17), 
whose  nine  portraits,  a  few  inches  in  size,  are  marvels  of 
their  kind.  To  the  same  group  of  little  masters  belongs 
Pierre  Savart. 


2l8 


ENGRAVING   IN    FRANCE 


In  comparison  with  line-engraving  etching  is  of  only 
secondary  importance  in  the  French  art  of  this  period. 
We  have,  it  is  true,  etchings  by  almost  all  the  French 
painters,  but  their  technique  remains  simple  and  un- 
developed, and  the  work  of  the  period  wins  little  admira- 
tion. By  Watteau  are  some  delicately  etched  studies  of 
single  figures  ;  Boucher  etches  partly  after  Watteau,  and 


^i&'  99-     Jean  Honore  Fragonard  :  From  the  set  of  Sat3TS  at  Play  (detail). 

partly  after  his  own  compositions  ;  by  Nattoir  are  some 
hastily  executed  groups  of  children.  Honore  Fragonard 
(1732 — 1806)  [fig.  99]  was  inspired  to  etch  by  Tiepolo, 
and  beside  some  hasty  sketches  he  executed  some  careful 
plates,  such  as  '  The  Lovers  in  the  Cupboard,'  etc.  Pierre 
Parrocel  etched  after  Subleyras  and  from  some  of  his  own 
compositions  in  the  contemporary  Italian  manner,  like  his 
father,  Joseph  Parrocel,  the  battle-painter,  who  founded  his 


BOISSIEU:    NORBLIN:    DEXOX  219 

style  on  that  of  Salvator  Rosa.  Jean  Baptiste  Oudry 
{1686 — 1755)  etched  hunting-scenes  and  animal  pieces  in 
a  hard  but  vigorous  style.  The  illustrations  of  the  large 
folio  edition  of  La  Fontaine's  "  Fables "  arc  for  the  most 
part  excellent!}'  reproduced  by  Tardieu,  Avcline,  Cars, 
Lebas,  and  others,  from  Oudry's  drawings. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  century  Jean  Jacques  Boissieu 
(1736 — 1 8 10)  worked  with  perseverance  and  success  as  a 
painter-etcher  in  Lyons.  Originally  basing  his  style  on 
that  of  Adrien  Manglard  (d.  1760),  an  etcher  of  seascapes, 
he  afterwards  developed  a  distinct  manner  of  his  own. 
Sometimes  he  reproduces  pictures  by  Ruisdael,  Van  de 
Velde,  etc.,  but  as  a  rule  etches  with  a  fine  needle 
crisply  drawn  and  cleverly  bitten  subjects  from  his  native 
surroundings  or  from  Roman  landscapes.  His  successful 
genre  pictures  (fig.  lOO)  are  on  the  whole  fewer;  but,  like 
his  landscapes,  they  show  a  pictorial  sense  rare  at  this 
period  ;  he  frequently  calls  in  the  assistance  of  the  roulette. 
His  most  important  works,  '  Aquapendente,'  *  The  Arch  of 
Titus,'  '  The  Coopers,'  '  The  Great  Charlatan,'  date  from 
the  beginning  of  his  seventieth  \-ear. 

Jean  Pierre  Norblin  (1745 — 1830)  worked  for  many 
years  as  director  of  an  Art  School  at  Warsaw,  and,  like 
his  German  contemporary  Dietrich,  endeavoured  to  revive 
the  methods  of  Rembrandt.  He  has  at  his  disposal  an 
unusual  amount  of  technical  dexterity,  and  his  plates, 
in  which  he  reproduces  his  own  compositions  or  originals 
ascribed  to  Dietrich  and  Rembrandt,  are  worked  with  a 
fine  point  and  display  genuine  artistic  spirit  throughout. 
After  his  return  to  Paris  in  1789  his  art  work  was  of  no 
further  importance. 

At  this  point  must  also  be  mentioned  Dominique  Vivant 
Denon   (1747 — 1825),  an   amateur  of  considerable    talent 


220 


ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 


lOo,      Jean  Jacques  Boissicu  : 
Th-c  Village  School  (detail). 


and  surprising  technical 
versatility.  His  love  of 
art  made  him  conversant 
with  works  of  the  most 
different  schools.  He 
wasparticularly  influenced 
by  the  painters  of  the 
Netherlands  —  he  repro- 
duced,  for  instance, 
Potter's  famous  '  Bull '  in 
a  folio-sized  print — distin- 
guishing himself  gener- 
ally by  his  command  of 
etching  on  plates  of  the 
largest  size.  Denon  was 
Director  of  the  Musee 
Napoleon  in  Paris. 

Jean  Duplessi-Bertaux 
(1747— i8i 3)  works  with 
a  fine  needle  on  the 
copper,  drawing  cleverly 
treated  military  scenes 
and  small  figures.  He 
has  been  compared  on 
this  account  with  Callot, 
but  is  perhaps  most  closely 
akin  to  his  German  con- 
temporary Chodowiecki. 
Genuine  painter-etching 
was  less  practised  in 
France  than  that  manner 
of  work  which  approaches 
very  nearly  to  the  treat- 


JEAN   MICHEL   MOREAU  221 

ment  and  style  of  line-engraving  in  its  mechanical  regularity. 
Engravers  of  the  Watteau  School  had  already  attempted 
to  supplant  the  burin  with  the  etching-needle  ;  and  later 
engravers  attained  this  object  to  a  more  complete  extent. 
Augustin  de  Saint- Aubin  (1736 — 1807)  had  inherited  from 
his  father  a  crisp  style  of  drawing  and  a  talent  for  keen 
observation.  Saint-Aubin's  etchings  often  appear  like 
engravings  delicately  worked  throughout  with  the  burin, 
though  only  the  finishing  touches,  a  sort  of  final  polish, 
were  given  to  them  with  the  burin.  Augustin  de  Saint- 
Aubin  etched  after  Greuzc,  Boucher,  the  illustrator 
Gravelot,  and  after  his  own  designs,  in  which  he  ennobles 
the  affectation  of  the  so-called  "  estampes  galantes  "  by  his 
own  grace  and  charm.  A  large  number  of  portrait-heads 
of  distinguished  contemporaries  were  executed  by  him 
with  indefatigable  industry.  Like  him  in  talent,  but  with 
higher  qualities  at  his  command,  is  Jean  Michel  Moreau 
(1741  — 1814),  extremely  clever  in  his  grasp  of  dramatic 
situation  and  of  character,  and  a  past-master  of  delicate 
work  with  needle  and  burin.  A  good  example  of  his 
talent  are  his  fine  illustrations  to  the  first  volume  of  the 
*'  Chansons"  by  Jean  Benjamin  Delaborde  (fig.  loi). 

Moreau's  greatest  importance  lies,  perhaps,  less  in  his 
own  engravings  than  in  the  large  number  of  charming 
compositions  reproduced  from  his  designs  by  engravers 
who  adapted  themselves  closely  to  his  style,  such  as 
Noel  Lemire,  C.  and  H.  Guttenberg,  and  Jean  Baptiste 
Simonet.  In  the  "  Monuments  pour  servir  a  I'Histoirc  du 
Costume  en  France  "  we  find  Moreau  and  a  Swiss  painter, 
Sigismund  Freudenberger(Freudeberg),  contemporary  with 
him  in  Paris,  working  together  in  the  pictorial  illustra- 
tion of  aristocratic  life,  every  disturbing  influence  being 
carefully  smoothed   away,  just  as  Watteau  depicted  the 


222 


ENGRAVING   IN    FRANCE 


social    life    of    the   same    people's    grandparents    at    the 
beginning  of  the  century. 

A  group  of  artists,  with  Jean  Michel  Moreau  among  the 
chief,  took  an  active  part  in  the  production  of  book- 
illustrations.       In    the   eighteenth    century   line-engraving; 


Fig.  loi.     Jean  Michel  Moreau  (the  younger)  :  The  Toilet. 
(From  Delaborde's  "  Choix  de  Chansons,"  Paris,  1773). 

plays  a  part,  like  that  of  the  woodcut  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  with  other  motives.  The  literature  of  society 
had  to  make  its  appearance  in  an  artistic  guise  ;  numerous 
illustrations  are  scattered  throughout  elegant  volumes  ; 
vignettes    decorate  the  beginning,  and  so-called  'culs-de- 


ILLUSTRATED    BOOKS  223 

lampe '  the  end  of  the  chapters.  Although  it  was  not 
unusual  during  the  seventeenth  century  to  publish  books 
with  copper-plates,  yet  the  French  illustrated  books  of  the 
eighteenth  century  form  a  group  of  peculiar  individuality. 
The  change  of  manners,  marked  outwardly  by  the  disuse 
of  the  great  periwig,  may  be  observed  both  in  art  and 
literature,  and  in  the  union  of  both  offered  by  illustrated 
books.  In  the  illustrations  by  Claude  Gillot  (1673 — 1722), 
a  pupil  of  Watteau,  to  the  "  Fables  "  of  Huard  de  La  Motte, 
1 7 19,  the  new  fashion  and  the  new  style  of  eighteenth-cen- 
tury books  make  their  first  appearance  ;  and  in  so  far  may 
Gillot  be  called  the  father  of  French  eighteenth-century 
illustration.  Illustrations  soon  came  into  vogue,  and  won 
a  power  with  which  writers  and  artists  had  to  reckon. 
Pictures  produced  by  favourite  artists  and  engravers 
were  essential  to  the  success  of  a  new  book.  Authors  of 
the  high  position  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  were  glad  to 
lend  their  assistance  to  the  most  successful  artists,  and 
the  literary  success  of  Restif  de  la  Bretonne  or  of  a  Dorat 
depended  to  no  small  degree  on  the  beauty  of  the  editions  in 
which  their  poetry  appeared.  As  a  rule  the  designers  of 
the  illustrations  were  engravers  and  etchers  as  well,and  acted 
as  such,  but  in  most  cases  they  supplied  the  original  designs 
only,  v/hich  were  reproduced  by  professional  copper- 
engravers.  These  last  not  infrequently  possess  astounding 
technical  dexterity,  but  are  nevertheless  only  artists  of 
second  rank,  and  engraving  receives  no  new  impulse 
from  their  work.  The  nature  of  their  task  offered  them 
no  opportunity  for  the  display  of  originality,  and  they  can 
be  separated  from  one  another  only  by  the  degree  of 
finish  and  neatness  with  which  their  work  is  executed. 
Among  the  most  prominent  of  those  engravers  of  illus- 
trations  whose    work   falls    in    the    second    half  of    the 


224 


ENGRAVING    IN    FRANCE 


eighteenth  century  may  be  mentioned  Emanuel  de  Ghendt, 
Joseph  de  Longueil  (fig.  102),  Charles  Etienne  Gaucher, 
Nicolas  de  Launay,  Nicolas  Ponce,  etc. 

In  order  to  estimate  fairly  the  worth  of  French  eighteenth- 
century  illustration,  the  work  of  the  engravers  must  be 
considered  in  connection  with  that  of  the  illustrators. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  illustrators  is  Hubert  Francois 
Gravelot    (1699 — ^77?))-      Among    his    most    remarkable 


Fig.  102.     Joseph  de  Longueil  after  P.  C.  Marillier.     Vignette 
from  Dorat's  "  Fables,"  Paris,  1773. 

works,  distinguished  for  charm,  originality  and  vigour,  are 
the  illustrations  for  Rousseau's  "  Nouvelle  Heloise,"  the 
"  Contes  Nouveaux  "  of  Marmontel,  the  "  Decameron,"  etc. 
Extraordinarily  inventive,  full  of  spirit,  but  at  the  same 
time  more  superficial  than  Gravelot,  is  Charles  Eisen 
(1720— 1778).  The  costly  adornment  of  Durat's  "  Fables  " 
and  his  '  Baisers,'  of  Montesquieu's  "  Temple  de  Cnide,"  of 
Voltaire's  "  Henriade,"  is  the  work  of  this  gifted  artist,  who 
finally  came  to  ruin  amid  the  wanton  laxity  to  which  he 
so  frequently  lent  his  talent. 


ILLUSTRATED    BOOKS  225 

Pierre  Philippe  Choffard  (1730 — 1809)  shows  masterly 
invention  in  the  design  of  little  vignettes  and  culs-de- 
lampe,  often  tenderly  etched  by  his  own  hand.  Another 
clever  "  little  master"  with  a  most  dainty  style  is  Clement 
Marillier.  In  his  firm  and  elegant  manner  Moreau 
illustrated  Delaborde's  "  Chansons  "  and  an  edition  of  the 
works  of  Rousseau.  Great  undertakings,  such  as  the 
edition  of  Ovid's  "  Metamorphoses,"  translated  by  the  Abbe 
de  Banier,  and  appearing  from  1767  to  1777,  gave  employ- 
ment to  almost  all  the  principal  illustrators  and  engravers 
of  Paris.  In  this  book  we  find  a  union  of  Boucher,  Eisen, 
Gravelot,  Moreau,  as  draughtsmen  ;  Binet,  Duclos,  Le 
Mire,  Massard,  Ponce,  Longueil,  Saint-Aubin  and  many 
others,  as  engravers.  The  enormous  number  of  large  and 
small  volumes  produced  at  Paris — often  on  account  of 
their  contents  bearing  the  name  of  a  fictitious  place  of 
publication — gives  us  an  idea  of  the  absorbing  love  for 
illustrated  books  which  from  Paris  spread  to  most  of  the 
civilised  world. 

A  reaction  against  the  tendency  indicated  by  these 
illustrated  picture-books  began  in  the  last  ten  years  of  the 
century.  Joseph  Marie  Vien  and  Jean  Jacques  PVancoise 
Lebarbier  represent  the  artistic  side  of  the  movement, 
which  was  supported  by  David  (Lebarbier's  illustrations  to 
Racine  appeared  in  1 796).  Of  the  still  living  representatives 
of  the  earlier,  somewhat  lax  manner,  Michel  Moreau 
attached  himself  to  the  new  movement  with  the  greatest 
sincerity,  but  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  art.  With  Prudhon's 
designs  for  P.  J.  Bernard's  "  L'Art  d'  Aimer"  and  for  the 
"  Daphnis  and  Chloe  "  of  Longus  (1800)  the  new  idealistic 
art  took  firm  possession  of  a  province  on  which  the  French 
spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century  had  printed  its  character  of 
careless  love  of  pleasure. 

15 


VI 

ENGRAVING  IN  ITALY  DURING  THE 
SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURIES 

ETCHING  made  its  first  appearance  on  the  stage  of 
Italian  art  at  a  time  when  ItaHan  painting  was 
still  living  on  the  inheritance  left  by  the  earlier  great 
masters.  Part  of  this  inheritance  was  a  certain  facility 
and  largeness  of  idea,  which  found  corresponding  expression 
by  means  of  etching. 

Etching  was  first  acclimatised  in  Italy  by  Francesco 
Mazzuoli,  called  Parmigianino  (Parma,  1503 — 1540).  If 
we  put  aside  some  doubtful  etchings,  his  original  work 
with  its  affectation  of  breadth  and  fluency  is  coarse  and  un- 
pleasing  to  the  eye  (fig.  103).  Andrea  Meldolla,  who  may 
be  identified  as  Andrea  Schiavone  (1522 — 1582),  Titian's 
pupil  and  assistant,  etched  Parmigianino's  designs  in  a 
soft  and  painter-like  style.  On  the  whole  the  Venetian 
School  preserved  its  natural  character  longer  than 
Parmigianino  and  other  followers  of  Correggio.  From 
the  Venetians  who  were  working  about  the  middle  of  the 
century,  we  may  single  out  Battista  dell'  Angelo  Veronese, 
called  del  Moro,  working  at  Venice  about  1540,  and  the 
engravers  and  etchers  Giovanni  Battista  Fontana  and 
Giulio  Fontana. 

Federigo  Barocci  (born  at  Urbino  1528,  worked  mainly 

226 


FEDERIGO    BAROCCI 


227 


at  Rome,  died  1602)  surpassed  every  one  of  his 
Italian  contemporaries  in  the  art  of  making  his  etchings 
charming  and  effective.  He  produced,  however,  only  a 
small  number  of  plates,  and  his  example  found  at  first 
no  followers  among  his  fellow-countrymen.  Barocci's 
etched  '  Annunciation  '  (fig.    104)  rivals  his  best  paintings 


r/r-y 


Fig.  103.     Francesco  Parmigianino  (Mazzuoli)  :  The  Entombment  (detail). 


in  fineness  of  effect,  and,  in  spite  of  a  method  of  treatment 
that  hardly  wins  our  sympathy  to-day,  may  be  counted  as 
a  masterpiece  of  etching. 

In  line-engraving  the  School  of  Marc- Antonio,  apart 
from  the  engravers  of  Mantua,  could  boast  only  a  few 
straggling  adherents  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
(Century,  the  most  noteworthy  among  them  being  Martino 


228 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


Rota,  of  Sebenico,  who  worked  between  1558  and  1586. 
There  is  something  of  Netherlandish  influence  in  his  fine 
and  pleasing  technique.  Among  the  enormous  crowd  of 
mechanical  engravers  who  were  now  engaged  in  reproducing 
the  paintings  of  their  contemporaries  and  of  older  masters, 
only  a  few  stand  out  as  of  particular  importance.     Even 


Fig.  104.     Federigo  Barocci :  The  Annunciation  (detail). 


the  appearance  of  a  master  of  engraving  like  Agostino. 
Carracci  (born  at  Bologna  1557,  died  at  Parma  1602),, 
though  his  influence  passed  far  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Italy,  was  insufficient  to  raise  Italian  engraving  to  any 
permanent  greatness.  Carracci,  as  though  to  maintain  his 
position  as  the  exponent  of  monumental  dignity  in  painting, 
introduced  a  large  style  of  engraving  (fig.  105)  absolutely 


AGOSTIXO    CARRACCI 


229 


opposed  to  the  minute  precision  of  the  later  Little  Masters 
of  the  northern  schools.  Carracci  strove  to  attain  neither 
any  illusion  of  colour  nor  brilliance  of  technique.  His 
method  consisted  of  simple  cross-hatchings  with  the  lines 
laid  broadly,  following  the  contours  of  the  form  to  be 
expressed,    and    swelling    out    to    greater    width    in     the 


Fig.  105.     Agostino  Carracci  :  St.  Jerome  (detail). 

shadows.  In  addition  to  much  original  work  he  also 
engraved  after  Titian,  Paolo  Veronese,  and  other  masters 
whose  style  was  related  to  his  own.  Agostino's  brother, 
Annibale  Carracci  (i  560— 1609),  made  only  a  few  amateur- 
ish experiments  in  etching  and  engraving.  Agostino's  true 
follower  is  Cherubino  Alberti  (i553— 1615),  "^vho  in  his  own 
light  and  easy  style  made  some    excellent    reproductions 


230  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

of  the  paintings  of  Rosso,  Caravaggio,  Zuccaro,  and 
similar  masters.  Albert!  appears,  however,  to  more 
advantage  when  he  places  his  own  compositions  on  the 
copper.  Francesco  Villamena  (1566 — 1622?),  in  spite  of 
a  certain  hastiness  of  execution,  is  a  still  more  remarkable 
engraver  for  this  period.  Apparently  a  pupil  of  Cornells 
Cort  at  Rome,  he  works  in  a  light  and  not  unpleasing 
style,  frequently  giving  little  more  than  outlines  with  only 
slight  indications  of  modelling.  Such  isolated  engravers 
as  still  worked  for  the  genuine  advancement  of  their  art 
could  not  check  the  decline  of  line-engraving  in  Italy. 
The  retrogression  of  the  art  becomes  more  and  more 
definite,  till  in  the  seventeenth  century  Italian  line-engraving 
is  scarcely  worthy  of  mention  as  an  artistic  process. 

With  the  decline  of  line-engraving  in  Italy  seemed  to 
come  increasing  activity  in  etching,  and  increasing  fertility 
in  the  artists  who  employed  this  method.  Among  the 
most  zealous  adherents  of  etching  were  the  artists  of  the 
Bolognese  School.  Among  the  etchers  of  the  time  we 
find  almost  all  the  known  names  in  the  School  of  Bologna, 
as  well  as  several  artists,  often  very  prolific,  who  are  either 
quite  unknown  or  else  play  a  very  unimportant  part  as 
painters.  As  a  general  rule,  Italian  etchings  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  are  freely  and  lightly  sketched  on  the 
copper.  Every  means  of  producing  an  artistic  effect,  the 
expression  of  tone  by  successive  bitings,  the  addition  of 
work  with  the  dry-point,  all  the  various  methods  of  ob- 
taining finish,  were  almost  entirely  unknown  or  rejected. 
Looked  at  as  a  whole,  the  Italian  etchings  of  this  time 
are  little  else  than  drawings  of  an  extremely  sketchy  nature 
reproduced  in  the  simplest  way  by  means  of  a  copper 
plate.  Italian  painter-etchers  made  not  the  slightest 
effort  to   raise  etching   to   importance   as  a  distinct  and 


THE   SCHOOL   OF    BOLOGNA 


!3i 


independent  branch  of  art,  as  was  the  case  in  the   Low 
Countries. 

Of  the  more  important  artists  of  the  Bolognese  School 
may  be  mentioned  as  etchers :  Guido  Reni,  Francesco 
Albani,  Domenichino  (Domenico  Zampieri),  Guercino 
(Giovanni  Francesco  Barbieri),  Giacomo  Cavedone,  EHsa- 


Fig.  io5.     Carlo  iMaratta  :  Betrothal  of  St.  Catherine  (detail). 


betta  Sirani,  Maria  Canuti,  Giovanni  Battista  Mola,  Carlo 
Maratta  (fig.  io6),  and  the  landscape  etcher,  Francesco 
Grimaldi. 

A  comparatively  important  influence  was  exercised  even 
beyond  the  limits  of  Italy  by  Antonio  Tempesta  of  Flor- 
ence (1555  — 1630),  whose  numerous  etchings  of  all  manner 
of  subjects  travelled   all  over  the  Continent.     They  are  a 


232 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


little  cold  and  mechanical,  but  the  liveliness  of  the  scenes 
they  depict  and  a  certain  natural  truth  of  composition  won 
much  popular  approval. 

The  Neapolitan  School  gave  birth  to  two  distinguished 
etchers,  Giuseppe  Ribera(i588 — 1652)  and  Salvator  Rosa 
(161 5 — 1673).  Ribera's  plates  (fig.  107),  with  their  power- 
ful, spirited  drawing  and 


their  harmonious  treat- 
ment, indisputably  reach 
the  high-water  mark  of 
seventeenth -century 
etching  in  Italy.  Sal- 
vator Rosa  worked  with 
a  fine  point  and  depicted 
mythological  and  classi- 
cal subjects  with  a  fresh 
and  vigorous  sense  of 
design.  He  is  also  note- 
worthy as  an  etcher  of 
groups  of  peasants  and 
brigands,  like  those 
which  he  introduced  into 
his  paintings. 

A  distinct  personality 
among  Italian  etchers  is 
Giovanni  Benedetto  Castiglione  (born  at  Genoa  1616,  died 
at  Mantua  1670).  While  living  at  Genoa  he  came  into 
contact  with  Van  Dyck,  and  as  a  result  based  his  style 
on  that  of  the  northern  etchers.  In  his  biblical  and 
mythological  compositions  he  imitated  Rubens,  and  also 
executed  a  series  of  studies  of  male  heads  in  the 
manner  of  Rembrandt.  Somewhat  akin  to  Castiglione 
is  Bartolommeo  Biscaino  (163  i  — 1657). 


Fig.  107.     Giuseppe  Ribera 
Bacchanal  (detail). 


GIOVANNI    BATTISTA   TI?:POLO 


233 


The  eighteenth  ceiitur}-  witnessed  the  introduction  of 
fresh  elements  in  Itahan  art.  In  painting,  as  in  etching 
and  engraving,  new  and  original  talent  began  to  appear. 
Our  modern  sympathies  are  on  the  whole  much  more 
attuned  to  the  principles  of  this  new  movement   than  to 


Fig.  loS.     Salvator  Rosa  :  Group  of  Warriors  (detail). 

those  of  seventeenth-century  Italian  art.  Etching,  indeed, 
was  practised  by  only  a  few  artists,  but  it  showed  distinct 
refinement  of  technique  and  a  more  decided  appreciation 
of  tone  and  pictorial  effect. 

In  Giovanni  Battista  Tiepolo  (born  at  Venice  1696,  died 
at  Madrid  1770)  the  best  qualities  of  the  older  Venetians 


234 


ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 


seem  to  have  again  sprung  into  life.  Tiepolo's  style  of 
painting,  with  its  bright  and  cheerful  effects,  its  sense  of 
light  and  air,  is  reflected  in  his  fifty-six  etchings,  freshly 
and    daintily    handled     throughout.       The    principal    one 


Fig.  109.     Giovanni  Domenico  Tiepolo  :  Bacchante  (detail). 

among  them  is  an  '  Adoration  of  the  Kings,'  of  folio  size 
and  full  of  figures.  Tiepolo's  son  and  assistant,  Giovanni 
Domenico  Tiepolo  (1726 — 1804),  placed  on  the  copper  a 
number  of  his  father's  compositions,  working  in  his  father's 
style.       The    younger    Tiepolo's    numerous    plates    are    as 


CANALETTO    AND    BELOTTO  235 

light,  sparkling,  and  original  as  those  of  the  elder,  though 
carried  to  furtlier  finish  and  more  depth  of  tone  (fig.  109). 
In  the  history  of  art  there  arc  few  instances  of  the  principles 
of  a  master's  painting  having  found  such  exact  expression 
in  his  etchings,  as  was  the  case  both  with  the  older  and 
the  younger  Tiepolo. 

An  almost  new  field  of  art  was  opened  by  the  Italians 
of  the  eighteenth  century  in  the  application  of  etching  to 
architectural  views.  In  this  connection  the  first  place  is 
due  to  Antonio  Canalc,  called  Canalctto  (Venice  1697 — 
1768),  whose  etchings  deserve  the  same  appreciation  that 
his  pictures  have  always  found.  At  times  he  etches  with 
a  light  touch  in  a  close  and  tender  technique,  at  times  his 
plates  are  strongly  and  deeply  bitten  ;  but  in  every  case 
he  has  the  power  of  rendering  the  clear  perspective  and 
the  soft  atmosphere  of  Venice  with  a  style  that  is  un- 
affected, apparently  very  simple  and  extraordinarily  deli- 
cate (fig.  1 10).  Canaletto  may  have  been  first  prompted 
to  take  up  etching  by  his  master,  Luca  Carlevariis  (1665 — 
1734),  who  had  produced  a  series  of  finely  etched  views 
of  Venice. 

Canaletto's  pupil  and  nephew,  Bernardo  Belotto  (bonv 
at  Venice  1720,  worked  at  Dresden  and  elsewhere,  died  at 
Warsaw  1780)  followed  in  his  master's  steps  as  a  painter 
and  etcher.  He  was,  however,  no  mere  imitator,  but  an 
artist  of  decided  individuality,  the  result  possibl)'  of  the 
fact  that  he  worked  mainly  in  the  north.  Looking  at  his 
prints,  one's  eyes  are  refreshed  by  the  forceful  precision  of 
of  the  drawing  and  the  masterly  handling  of  the  planes 
of  perspective.  Belotto  etched  coarsel)'  in  firm,  vigorous 
lines.  His  views  of  Dresden  are  genuine  masterpieces,  not 
only  for  their  topographical  correctness  and  their  clever 
renderino"   of  architecture,  but  also  for   their   reflection    of 


236  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

local  colour  and  atmosphere.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
Ital)'  produced  at  the  same  time  several  other  etchers  who 
were  distinctly  related  in  style  to  Belotto,  but  who  worked 
quite  independently  of  him — among  them  the  two  Piranesi, 
Giovanni  Battista  (born   1721  ?,  died  at  Rome  1778),  and 


Fig.  no.     Antonio  Canale  (Canaletto)  :   View  in  Venice  (detail). 

his  son,  Francesco  (born  at  Rome  1748,  died  at  Paris 
1 8 10).  The  elder  Piranesi,  originally  trained  as  an  archi- 
tect, found  his  milieu  in  the  picturing  of  ancient  Roman 
buildings  and  ruins.  In  his  certainty  and  precision  of  line 
he    is    akin    to    Belotto,  but    not    content,  like    him,  with 


GIOVANNI    BATTISTA    PIRANESI  237 

simple  and  straightforward  rendering  of  nature,  he  clothes 
reality  with  massivcness  of  form,  grandeur  of  effect,  and 
mystery  of  light  and  shade.  Many  of  Piranesi's  prints  are 
daring  experiments  with  the  technique  of  etching,  and 
have  almost  the  effect  of  a  powerful  decorative  painting. 
He  obtains  in  his  etchings  a  remarkable  richness  and 
depth  of  tone,  produced  by  continuous  bitings  and  by 
various  technical  processes,  which  he  must  have  preserved 
as  a  secret.  Skilful  printing,  moreover,  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  giving  artistic  effect  to  Piranesi's  prints. 
The  younger  Piranesi  worked  with  his  father  and  followed 
his  style  so  closely  that  their  work  can  scarcely  be 
distinguished. 

Line-engraving  in  Ital>'  during  the  eighteenth  century 
received  a  new  impulse,  yet  the  work  of  the  engravers  of 
the  period  is  characterised  by  unambitious  correctness 
rather  than  by  originality  and  artistic  freedom.  Marco 
Pittcri  (1703 — 1786)  opened  up  new  paths,  but  had  no 
followers.  Pitteri  covers  his  plate  with  sets  of  slanting  or 
vertical  lines  running  evenly  and  in  parallel  directions  over 
all  the  forms  he  wishes  to  render  ;  and  these  lines  he  widens 
here  and  there  into  irregular  swellings  accentuated  by  dots, 
thus  producing  modelling,  light  and  shade — a  method  of 
engraving  somewhat  akin  to  that  of  Claude  Mellan  in  his 
famous  head  of  Christ  on  '  Veronica's  Handkerchief."" 
Pitteri,  who  never  engraved  his  own  designs,  obtains  in 
many  of  his  usually  large  plates  a  soft  and  pleasing  effect. 

The  majority  of  Italian  engravers  in  the  eighteenth 
century  were  occupied  in  reproducing  the  works  of  the  old 
masters.  To  some  extent  they  inherited  this  from  France,. 
for  French  engravers  from  the  seventeenth  century  had 
been  occupied  in  reproducing  classical  examples  until. 
French  art  found  for  them  a  fresh  field. 


238  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

Among  the  so-called  classical  engravers  of  this  period 
in  Italy  the  leading  part  was  played  by  Giovanni  Volpato 
(1738 — 1803),  who  worked  originally  in  Venice,  and  later 
in  Rome,  where  he  was  the  founder  of  a  large  and  fruitful 
School.  His  reproductions  of  Raphael's  work,  and  particu- 
larly his  prints  after  the  frescoes  in  the  Stanze  of  the 
Vatican,  established  Volpato's  fame.  This  fame,  however, 
rests  far  more  on  the  spirit  and  importance  of  the  com- 
positions that  inspired  the  plates  than  on  the  art  of  the 
engraver.  His  style  is  not  lacking  in  external  grace.  His 
execution  is  soft,  but  spiritless  and  conventional,  while  his 
insipid  drawing  is  never  fair  to  the  originals,  least  of  all  in 
the  heads.  Volpato  also  engraved  Raphael's  frescoes  in 
the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  'The  Entombment,'  'The 
Madonna  della  Sedia,'  Guercino's  '  Aurora,'  Claude's 
*  Cephalus  and  Procris,'  and  Poussin's  '  Noah  ' — prints  that 
for  a  long  time  were  held  in  high  esteem. 

Volpato  was  surpassed  in  every  respect  by  his  pupil 
and  son-in-law,  Raphael  Morghen  (born  1758,  died  at 
Rome  1833),  who  worked  on  exactly  the  same  lines. 
Morghen's  drawing  and  composition  are  finer  and  more 
correct,  and  the  whole  effect  of  his  prints  is  pleasing  and 
brilliant.  To  Volpato's  series  of  the  Stanze  prints 
Morghen  added  an  eighth  plate,  '  The  Mass  at  Bologna,' 
as  well  as  the  frescoes  of  the  Camera  della  Segnatura. 
Morghen's  most  famous  plate,  the  *  Last  Supper '  (fig.  1 1 1), 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  is  a  fine  piece  of  engraving, 
•executed  with  loving  sympathy,  and  indisputably  the 
•chief  work  of  Volpato's  School.  The  nature  of  the  art  of 
his  time  made  it  impossible  for  Morghen  to  do  justice  to 
Leonardo's  characteristic  style  either  in  his  drawing  or  in 
his  choice  of  engraving  as  a  means  of  expression.  To 
our  modern  eyes  his  work  is  much  more  satisfactory  when 


239 


240  ENGRAVING    IN    ITALY 

he  reproduces  subjects  by  some  artist  nearer  to  his  own 
time  and  whose  outlook  upon  art  more  resembled  his  own, 
such  as  Guido  Reni's  '  Aurora,'  Domenichino's  '  Diana 
Hunting,'  or  the  '  Parnassus  '  of  Raphael  Mengs. 

The  pupils  of  Volpato  and  Morghen,  such  as  Giovanni 
Folo  and  Pietro  Anderloni,  show  the  influence  of  Wille 
and  Bervic  in  their  endeavour  to  obtain  sharpness  and 
brilliance  of  execution  and  great  clearness  of  modelling,  an 
endeavour  that  not  seldom  leads  to  dryness  and  gives 
their  plates  the  appearance  of  having  been  made  from 
a  sculptured  relief  rather  than  from  a  painting.  The 
drawing  of  these  later  engravers  follows  the  originals  with 
much  more  care  and  exactitude  than  the  unhampered  but 
also  uncritical  engravers  of  earlier  times  were  able  to 
obtain.  But  this  eager  endeavour  to  bring  the  engraving 
to  such  a  pitch  of  painfully  true  reproduction  necessarily 
killed  all  artistic  freedom.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  works  of  this  kind  were  rarely  placed  on  copper  in 
front  of  the  original.  The  engraver  must  have  made  a 
sketch,  usually  in  charcoal,  from  the  painting,  and  used 
this  to  work  from  in  his  studio.  What  he  actually  pro- 
duced was  therefore  as  a  rule  only  a  copy  of  a  copy. 
Reproduction,  carried  on  in  this  manner  with  changing 
fortune,  gave  continual  and  profitable  employment  to  a 
number  of  engravers.  Giuseppe  Longhi,  Pietro  Anderloni, 
Marco  Gandolfi,  Paolo  Toschi,  and  others,  maintained  the 
good  traditions  of  the  past,  largely  because  they  clung  with 
understanding  to  the  technical  processes  of  Edelinck  and 
other  Old  Masters.  Though  it  is  easy  to-day  to  recognise 
faults  in  their  reproductive  work,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  these  so-called  classical  engravers  deserve  real  credit 
for  having  made  the  works  of  the  Old  Masters  a  living 
possession  of  the  world. 


VII 
ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

IN  the  fifteenth  century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  we  find  no  engravers  in  England  ;  there 
is  no  record  either  of  artists  or  of  their  work.  As  far  as 
present  research  carries  us,  the  first  edition  of  "  The 
Birth  of  Mankind"  (1540,  British  Museum)  contains  the 
first  anonymous  examples  of  English  engraving.  After 
the  middle  of  the  century  foreign  engravers  and  etchers 
come  into  notice,  among  the  earliest  being  Thomas 
Gemini,  Remigius  and  Franz  Hogenberg.  The  earliest 
native-born  engravers  known  at  present  are  Humphrey 
Cole  and  Augustine  Rythcr,  but  their  work  consisted 
mainly  in  the  production  of  maps.  For  a  long  time 
engraving  was  confined  to  portraits,  title-pages,  maps, 
and  architectural  drawings.  William  Rogers  (worked 
1589 — 1604)  is  noteworthy  for  his  magnificent  portrait  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  for  several  finely  designed  title- 
pages,  such  as  that  of  Gerard's  "  Herball "  (1597).  Con- 
temporary with  him  were  Thomas  Cockson  (worked 
1 59 1 — 1636)  and  Renold  Elstracke,  a  Fleming  who  had 
settled  in  England.  Their  work  is  remarkable  for  its  fine 
decorative  treatment  of  ornament  and  heraldry. 

In  1 6 16  Simon  dc  Passe  settled  in  England,  followed 
in  1 62 1  by  his  brother  Willem.  Working  in  the  style  of 
their  father,  Crispin  de  Passe,  the  two  brothers  exercised 

241  16 


242  ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

considerable  influence  on  the  development  of  the  art  of 
engraving  in  England.  Among  their  associates  and  pupils 
were  some  noteworthy  engravers  of  portraits  and  book 
illustrations,  such  as  William  Marshall  (worked  1617 — 
1649),  John  Payne  (1606 — 1648),  William  Hole,  Francis 
Delaram  and  Thomas  Cccill.  William  Faithorne  the  elder 
(1616 — 1691)  was  a  pupil  of  Jchn  Payne,  and  during  the 
Civil  War  had  studied  in  the  Netherlands  and  under 
Nanteuil  in  Paris.  His  fine  portraits  will  bear  placing 
beside  the  best  Flemish  or  French  u-ork  of  his  day,  and 
are  remarkable  for  vigour  of  line  and  precision  of  model- 
ling. They  show,  too,  a  use  of  delicate  hatching  and  minute 
dot  work,  probably  learned  from  Nanteuil.  David  Loggan 
(a  native  of  Danzig,  f.  1635 — i/OO)  worked  during  all  his 
life  in  London.  Robert  White  (1645 — 1704),  Loggan's 
pupil,  engraved  a  number  of  highly  interesting  portraits  of 
his  contemporaries  with  considerable  truth  and  vivacity, 
though  with  a  certain  looseness  of  technique.  George 
Vertue  (London  1684 — 1756),  antiquary  and  writer  on 
art,  engraved  a  large  number  of  somewhat  sketchy 
portraits  in  the  manner  of  Vorsterman  and  Edelinck.  He 
possessed  no  particular  merit  as  an  engraver,  and  both 
in  composition  and  drawing  his  prints  are  weak  and 
unsatisfactory,  but  his  work  forms  a  valuable  historic 
record. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
interest  centred  so  entirely  on  the  newly  discovered  art 
of  mezzotint  that  the  other  arts  of  engraving  were  com- 
pletely overshadowed.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  indeed, 
England  can  show  only  three  line-engravers  of  real  im- 
portance— Robert  Strange,  William  Sharp,  and  William 
Woollett.  Strange  (172 1  — 1792)  studied  under  Lebas  in 
Paris,  but  like  almost  all  his  contemporaries  was  influenced 


WILLIAM   WOOLLKTT  243 

by  Willc.  Returning  to  England  he.  devoted  his  energies 
mainly  to  engraving  the  paintings  of  the  great  Italian 
colourists,  for  which  his  pure  and  soft  execution  was 
singularly  adapted.  In  the  complicated  method  of  his 
line  work  Strange  followed  his  model  W'ille,  but  the 
niceties  of  form  and  composiiion  are  choked  by  the  formal 
regularity  of  his  style.  William  Sharp  (1749 — 1824) 
perhaps  hardly  equals  him  in  brilliance  of  technique,  but 
frequently  surpasses  him  in  his  natural  freshness,  as  in  his 
engravings  after  Re}'nolds,  Trumbull,  and  other  painters. 
Greater  individuality  and  more  definite  power  of  a  dis- 
tinctly English  type  appears  in  William  Woollett  (1735 — 
1785),  whose  native  genius  supplied  him  with  a  fluent  style 
that  was  purely  pictorial  in  its  nature  and  intention.  To 
a  greater  extent  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  Tardieu 
perhaps  excepted,  Woollett  had  the  knack  of  skilfully 
combining  the  use  of  the  needle  and  the  burin.  This 
quality  was  of  particular  advantage  to  him  in  the  land- 
scape engravings,  which  form  the  greater  portion  of  his 
work.  Claude  Lorrain's  paintings  found  in  Woollett  an 
ideal  interpreter.  He  also  executed  many  engravings 
after  contemporary  English  landscape  painters  such  as 
Richard  Wilson.  His  most  famous  prints,  though  not 
perhaps  his  finest  work,  are  the  two  battle-pieces  after 
Benjamin  West,  '  The  Death  of  General  Wolfe'  and  '  The 
Battle  of  La  Hogue.'  Other  engravers  contemporary  with 
Woollett,  but  of  less  importance,  arc  Francis  Vivares 
(1709—1780),  James  Peak  {c.  1730 — 1782),  and  John 
Browne  (1741  — 1801). 

An  entirely  independent  position  is  held  by  the  famous 
satirist,  William  Hogarth  (1697 — 1764).  Although  he  is  of 
incomparably  more  importance  as  painter  than  engraver,  his 
prints  served  to  win  reputation  for  the  artist  far  more  than 


244 


ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 


his  pictures.  Hogarth's  prints,  however,  owe  this  success 
rather  to  the  subjects  they  portray  than  to  their  actual 
artistic  merits.  Hogarth,  indeed,  is  an  admirable  draughts- 
man, but  the  technical  execution  of  his  plates  never  rises 
above  mediocrity,  and  one  may  be  pardoned  for  doubting 
whether  Hogarth's  work  occupies  a  place  of  any  real 
importance  in  the  development  of  engraving.  His  plates 
arc  broadly  and   crudely   etched,  with   frequent   assistance 


g.  112.     William  Hogarth  :  The  Laughing  Audience  (detail). 


from  the  burin  ;  nowhere  is  there  any  attempt  at  artistic 
finish  ;  the  entire  aim  is  to  obtain  the  utmost  expressive- 
ness with  a  minimum  of  labour.  In  the  greater  part  of 
his  work  he  probably  relied  on  outside  help,  and  famous 
prints,  such  as  those  of  the  '  Marriage  a  la  Mode '  series,, 
were  certainly  not  put  on  the  copper  by  Hogarth  himselL 
Hogarth's  greatness  depends  on  his  subtle  power  of 
expressing  the  baser  qualities  of  mankind  and  the  follies 


WILLIA:^!    HOGARTH  245 

of  his  own  lime,  on  his  humour,  and  on  his  original 
combination  of  satire  and  moral  lessons.  His  first  large 
work,  the  'Masquerades  and  Operas'  of  1724,  already 
shows  the  peculiar  inclination  of  his  genius.  '  A  Harlot's 
Progress  '  (1734)  and  '  A  Rake's  Progress  '  (1735),  together 
with  the  'Marriage  a  la  Mode'  already  mentioned,  are 
Hogarth's  most  remarkable  work.  Hogarth  had  no  pupils 
and  left  no  real  successors,  but  he  gave  to  English 
caricature  and  to  English  humorous  illustration  an 
essentially  national  quality  which  in  man}'  respects  has 
prevailed  until  the  present  day. 

There  was  little  genuine  painter-etching  in  England 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  Mention  may  be  made  of 
Thomas  W'orlidge  (1700  — 1766),  who  etched  a  series  of 
portraits  and  sketches  of  heads  in  imitation  of  Rembrandt, 
and  Captain  William  Baillie  (1723  — 1810),  who  resembles 
his  German  contemporary,  Dietrich.  He  possessed  consider- 
able skill,  though  only  of  a  technical  nature,  and  followed 
the  manner  of  Rembrandt,  producing  also  mezzotint, 
stipple,  and  aquatint  plates.  He  retouched  the  original 
plate  of  Rembrandt's  Hundred  Guilder  Print,  which  had 
fallen  into  his  hands,  a  piece  of  work  which  met  with 
approval  at  the  time,  but  which  we  are  not  inclined  to 
regard  so  fa\'ourab!\'  to-da}'.  More  originality  is  displayed 
in  the  large  and  broadly  handled  portrait-etchings  of 
Benjamin  Wilson  (London,  1750 — 1788).  Some  experi- 
ments in  etching  were  also  made  by  Angelica  Kauffmann 
and  Bartolozzi,  while  to  caricaturists  such  as  Rowlandson, 
Dighton,  Gillray,  Aiken  and  the  Cruikshanks  etching  was 
a  ready  and  quick  means  for  the  production  of  their 
prints.  A  real  revival  of  etching  began  with  the  etched 
work  of  Turner  for  his  "Liber  Studiorum  "  (1807 — 1819), 
of  Sir  David   Wilkie   and    Andrew    Geddes,   and    of  the 


246 


ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 


Norwich    School    represented    by   Crome,    Cotman,  Stark, 
Vincent  and  the  Rev.  E.  T.  Daniell. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  century  stipple  engraving 
attained  extraordinary  popularity  in  England,  and  from 
England  passed  over  to  the  Continent,  where  it  was 
known    as   "  la    maniere    anglaise."      The    art    of   stipple 


Fig.  113.     Francesco  Barlolozzi :  Cupid  and  Psyche  (detail). 


engraving  was  introduced  into  England  by  William 
Wynne  Ryland  (1738—1783)-  The  great  founder  of  the 
stipple  school  was  the  Italian  Francesco  Bartolozzi,  who 
was  born  in  1728,  worked  from  1764  to  1S02  in  London, 
and  in  1802  went  to  Lisbon,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death  in   1815.     He  was  a  naturally  gifted  engraver,  and 


FRANCESCO    BARTOLOZZI  247 

he  came  to  London  at  the  very  time  when  Dcmarteau's 
plates,  printed  in  red  and  various  colours  (.see  p.  300),  were 
held  in  great  esteem.  Angelica  Kauffmann  and  the 
Italian  painter,  Cipriani,  then  working  in  London,  per- 
suaded Bartolozzi  to  adopt  the  crayon  manner  for  the 
reproduction  of  their  work.  Bartolozzi  refined  and 
perfected  this  method,  and  produced  during  his  London 
period  an  extraordinary  number  of  plates  after  these 
and  other  artists.  The  stipple  method  was  wonderfully 
successful  in  rendering  the  sweet  sentimental  expression 
of  the  soft  effeminate  heads  by  Angelica  and  Cipriani  and 
their  woolly,  insipid  modelling.  From  the  technical  point 
of  view,  however,  many  of  Bartolozzi's  pieces,  such  as  his 
'  Clytia '  after  Carracci,  his  '  Penelope '  after  Angelica 
Kauffmann,  and  various  portraits,  are  distinctly  meritorious 
performances. 

Among  the  best  of  the  stipple-engravers  working  with 
Bartolozzi  in  London  may  be  mentioned  his  pupils,  Lewis 
Schiavonetti  (1765 — 1810),  Giovanni  Vendramini  (1769 — 
1839),  William  Nutter  (1754— 1802),  Peter  William 
Tomkins,  John  Keyse  Sherwin  and  Caroline  Watson. 
Other  engravers  and  mezzotinters,  such  as  Earlom  and 
John  Raphael  Smith,  were  driven  to  follow  the  popular 
taste  and  to  adapt  themselves  to  stipple,  certainly  with 
excellent  results. 

Outside  of  England  only  a  few  engravers  deserve 
mention  as  having  worked  in  stipple,  but  at  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  method  was  highly  popular 
for  the  production  of  dainty  and  elegant  views,  used  as 
illustrations  for  almanacs,  etc. 

The  process  of  aquatint  found  in  England  its  first 
exponent  in  Paul  Sandby,  who.se  earliest  aquatint  appeared 
in  1774.     tic  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  a 


248  ENGRAVING   IN    ENGLAND 

spirit  ground.  At  the  end  of  the  century  aquatint  gained 
great  popularity  as  a  means  of  producing  coloured  plates 
and  collections  of  landscapes,  architectural  views,  costume, 
caricatures,  etc.  The  method  was  largely  used  after  1790 
for  the  illustration  of  coloured  books,  such  as  those  issued 
by  the  Boydells,  Ackermann,  Ormc,  and  other  publishers. 
Among  the  more  prominent  artists  who  followed  Sandby 
may  be  mentioned  T.  Malton,  W.  and  T.  Daniell,  R.  and 
D.  Havell,  T.  Sutherland,  J.  Bluck,  and  F.  C.  Lewis. 

With  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of 
nineteenth  century  line-engraving  also  was  widely  applied 
to  the  illustration  of  books  of  a  small  size,  decorated  with 
plates  and  dainty  vignettes.  Stothard  and  Westall 
supplied  the  drawings  for  a  large  number  of  illustrations 
of  this  type.  There  was  another  development  in  the  use 
of  steel  plates  after  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  a  large  school  of  line  engravers  was  inspired 
by  the  paintings  of  J.  M.  \V.  Turner,  and  under  his 
personal  guidance  produced  some  remarkable  work. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  J.  C.  Allen,  E.  Finden, 
G.  and  W.  B.  Cooke,  E.  Goodall,  W.  Miller  and  R.  Wallis. 


Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
hitherto  known  methods  of  reproduction  were  increased  by 
the  appearance  of  a  new  process,  that  of  mezzotint.  It 
was  a  time  when  the  ruling  tendency  in  line-engraving  and 
etching  alike  was  to  obtain  a  full  pictorial  effect  with  the 
utmost  manipulation  of  light  and  shade.  It  seemed  to 
be  the  vocation  of  the  new  art  to  surpass  all  the  other 
methods  of  engraving  in  power  and  richness  of  effect.  Its 
inventor,  Ludwig  von  Siegcn,  gave  it  to  the  world  almost 
complete    in    every  part,    and    without    the    possibility    or 


DISCOVERY   OF    MEZZOTINT  249 

necessity  of  an\-  essential  improvement.  The  wrong  idea 
was  once  prevalent  that  the  forerunner  of  mezzotint  was 
the  art  of  engra\ing  by  means  of  the  punch  and  mallet, 
a  method  practised  by  German  and  Italian  goldsmiths  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century 
adapted  to  a  wider  artistic  j^urpose  by  the  Amsterdam 
goldsmith,  Jan  Lutma  (died  16S9).  The  method  of 
working  with  a  punch  is  entirely  different  from  mezzotint. 
In  the  case  of  the  former  process  the  dots  that  suppl\-  the 
indications  of  form  are  beaten  deepl}'  in  the  plate  by 
means  of  the  punch,  whereas  in  mezzotint  the  plate  is 
first  roughened  all  over,  and  the  indications  of  form 
are  produced  by  smoothing  down  the  rough  surface  (see 
"  Introduction,"  pp.  5,  6). 

Ludwig  von  Siegen,  called  von  Sechten,  was  born  at 
Utrecht  in  1609.  His  father  belonged  to  an  old  family 
^\•hich  held  the  tenure  of  Sechten,  belonging  to  the 
Archbishopric  of  Cologne  ;  his  mother  was  Spanish. 
Young  Siegen  was  educated  at  Cassel,  and  information  as 
to  his  later  life  is  extremely  scanty.  He  seems  at  an  early 
period  to  have  taken  an  amateur's  interest  in  all  manner  of 
artistic  work.  From  164 1  he  was  living  in  Amsterdam, 
and  completed  there  in  1642  a  large  portrait  of  the 
Landgravine  Amelia  of  Hesse,  the  earliest  known  mezzo- 
tint plate.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  circumstances  or  of 
the  previous  experiments  that  led  Siegen  to  his  discovery. 
In  1643  followed  the  life-size  head  and  shoulders  of  the 
Empress  Eleonora,  wife  of  Ferdinand  II.,  and  in  1644  the 
portraits  of  William  of  Orange  and  his  wife,  superb  prints, 
quite  remarkable  for  the  sympathy  and  skill  with  which 
the  possibilities  of  the  new  process  w  ere  grasped.  Siegen  s 
technique  at  this  time  was  not  limited  to  the  use  of  the 
scraper,  for  he   called   the  burin  to  aid  in    completing  the 


250  ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

background,  which  was  usually  v.-orked  in  close  cross- 
hatching,  and  in  the  accentuation  of  the  finer  details. 
Siegen  appears  to  have  roughened  only  parts  of  his  plate, 
and  never  the  whole  surface,  mapping  out  like  a  painter 
the  larger  masses  of  his  picture,  and  using  the  roughened 
portions  from  the  very  first  as  a  suggestion  of  modelling. 
High  lights  and  gradation  of  tone  were  then  expressed  by 
means  of  the  scraper.  Siegen  is  supposed  to  have  rough- 
ened his  plate  by  means  of  a  sort  of  circular  file  ;  the 
ordinary  rocker  counts  as  the  invention  of  Blooteling.  It 
was  not  till  1654,  when  Siegen  was  successively  at  Regens- 
burg,  Mainz,  and  Cologne,  that  he  produced  some  further 
mezzotint  plates,  but  these  showed  no  artistic  advance  on  his 
former  work.  In  these  later  plates  the  whole  surface  was 
roughened,  and,  as  was  the  case  with  his  successors,  the 
remaining  work  was  done  entirely  with  the  scraper.  By 
1657  Siegen's  artistic  output  came  to  a  close,  though  he  is 
mentioned  as  still  living  in  1676. 

Siegen  kept  his  new  process  a  secret,  but  it  seems  about 
1654  to  have  become  known  to  Prince  Rupert,  whom 
Siegen  met  at  Brussels,  and  to  Theodor  Caspar  von 
Fih-stenberg,  a  prebendary  of  Mainz.  Prince  Rupert 
(16 19 — 1682),  a  keen  amateur  who  executed  several 
etchings,  left  a  series  of  mezzotint  plates  after  different 
masters,  somewhat  hard  in  treatment  but  always  thoroughly 
sound  in  workmanship,  among  them  '  The  Great  f'xecu- 
tioner'  of  1658  after  Ribera  (fig.  114)— called  the 
'Great  Executioner'  to  distinguish  it  from  the  smaller 
replica  made  by  Prince  Rupert  as  an  illustration  to  John 
p:velyn's  "  Sculptura "  (1662).  Furstenberg  (died  1675) 
is  on  the  whole  of  little  importance,  though  he  is  note- 
worthy as  a  skilful  craftsman  in  the  technique  of  the 
new   art. 


PRINCE    RUPERT 


2;i 


The  art  of  mezzotint  was  introduced  into  the  Low 
Countries  and  England  by  Prince  Rupert,  and  into 
Germany   by   P^iirstenberg.       While  the   process  was   still 


1' ig.  114.     Prince  Riijuit  :    I'he  '(ircat 


regarded  as  something  of  a  secret,  it  became  known  to 
Wallerant  Vaillant  (born  at  Lille  1623,  died  at  Antwerp 
1677),  who  was  an  able  painter  of  the  school  of  Ouellinus, 


252 


ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 


and  possessed  special  skill  in  drawing  portraits  in  a  sort 
of  slight  pastel  method  with  coloured  chalks.  In  mezzo- 
tint Vaillant  found  a  method  absolutely  suited  to  his 
natural  style,  and  was  the  first  trained  artist  to  adopt 
the    new    manner.       Vaillant    executed     more    than    two 


Fig.  115.     Wallcraiit  Vaillant  :   Portrait. 

hundred  mezzotints  in  all,  working  occasional!)'  fiom  his 
own  drawings,  but  mainl)'  after  Dutch  portraits  and  genre 
jiictures.  His  work  is  pleasing  on  the  whole,  though  at 
times  somewhat  heav}'  and  dark  in  tone.  In  Holland  the 
art  was  also  practised  by  Abraham  Blootcling,  an  engraver 
M'lio   worked.'. in    the    manner  of   Suydcrhoef,   and   by  his 


CORNELIS    DUSART 


253 


pLipil'^,  Jan  and  Nicolas  Vcrkoljc.  The  density  of  tone,  in 
which  Vaillant's  plates  had  set  the  example,  is  common  to 
all  these  engravers.  Cornclis  Dusart  was  the  first  Dutch- 
man to  bring  any  fresh  quality  into  mezzotint.  His  prints, 
handled  with  a  fine  artistic  sense,  are  bright  and  pleasing 
in  effect,  and  uncjuestionabl}'  the  best  work  produced  by 
Holland    in     this    provii:cc    of    art.       Dusart's    mezzotint 


Fisr.  1 16.     Cornells  Dusart  :  The  Peasant  \\ 


I'ipe  (detail). 


subjects,  like  those  of  his  etchings,  are  scenes  from  peasant 
life,  often  with  a  strong  dash  of  caricature. 

In  Germany  the  art  of  mezzotint  never  rose  to  particular 
distinction.  By  Flirstenberg  the  process  was  communi- 
cated to  an  unimportant  artist  named  Friedrich  Eltz,  and 
by  him  again  to  a  large  number  of  Nuremberg  and 
Augsburg  portrait  engravers,  such  as  Georg  and  Michael 
Fenitzer,  Christof  Weigel,  Johann  Elias  and  Johann 
Gottfried  Haid,  Bernard  Vogcl,  etc.,  most  of  them  un- 
inspired craftsmen.     Rising  somewhat  above  the  average 


254  ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

productions  of  this  group  are  the  mezzotints  of  the 
Augsburg  battle-painter,  Georg  Phih'pp  Rugendas  (1666 — 
1742). 

In  the  eighteenth  century  also  mezzotint  engraving  was 
practised  in  Germany  to  a  comparatively  small  extent. 
The  most  important  of  the  artists  who  come  under  our 
consideration  is  Hcinrich  Sintzenich  (born  at  Mannheim 
1752,  died  at  Munich  1812),  who  acquired  in  England  the 
ground-work  of  his  technical  skill.  Together  with  him  must 
be  mentioned  Johann  Peter  Pichler  (Vienna,  1765 — 1806), 
with  a  series  of  excellent  plates  after  old  masters. 

Originally  practised  in  England  only  by  a  few  amateurs, 
mezzotint  soon  began  to  make  rapid  strides.  It  was  in 
England  that  the  method  first  reached  its  full  extent  of 
high  technical  and  artistic  refinement,  which  made  it  an 
art  of  a  peculiarly  national  character.  When  mezzotint 
came  into  vogue  in  England  there  was  no  school  of 
engraving  worthy  of  the  name.  English  portraitists,  such 
as  Peter  Lely,  Kneller,  Gainsborough,  and  above  all  the 
great  master  of  portrait-painting,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
began  to  find  in  mezzotint  the  process  that  did  greater 
justice  to  their  art  than  had  been  possible  with  any  other 
means  of  reproduction.  As  English  painting  gained  much 
from  Van  Dyck,  so  mezzotint  owed  its  development  to  artists 
who  had  emigrated  from  Flanders  and  Holland,  such  as 
Abraham  Blooteling,  Gerard  Valk,  Nicolas  Verkolje,  and 
Pieter  van  Somen  After  about  1670  the  place  of 
foreigners  was  taken  b}'  native-born  artists  of  considerable 
distinction,  such  as  William  Sherwin  (1669 — i/H)*  Francis 
Place  (1647— 1728),  Isaac  Beckett  (1653— 171 5  ?),  Robert 
Williams  (worked  1700 — 171 5)  and  John  Smith  (1654 — 
1742).  In  their  hands  the  art  of  mezzotint  reached  its 
full  perfection,  one  special  step  in  advance  being  the  more 


Fig.  117.     James  MacArdell  :  Portrait  (detail). 
255 


256  ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

careful  rocking  of  the  plate  with  a  finer  and  more  delicate 
burr.  As  a  result  of  this  it  became  possible  to  produce 
much  richer  tone  effects,  details  could  be  more  sharply- 
accented,  and  mezzotint  work  lost  the  hard  coarseness  that 
had  clung  to  the  plates  of  the  Dutch  artists,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  Dusart.  This  great  advance  was 
due  to  Beckett,  and  particularly  to  John  Smith.  Smith 
was  the  favoured  scraper  of  Kneller's  r.umerous  portraits, 
and  left  several  hundred  prints.  Equally  successful  was 
his  follower,  John  Eaber  the  younger  (1684 — 1756).  Both 
of  them,  however,  were  surpassed  by  James  MacArdell, 
who  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1729,  worked  in  London, 
and  died  there  in  1765.  In  refinement  of  drawing  and 
sensitiveness  of  tone  his  plates  rank  as  perhaps  the  very 
finest  work  of  the  English  mezzotint  school.  MacArdell 
was  recognised  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  his  ideal 
interpreter,  yet  he  was  equally  skilful  in  doing  justice  to 
the  entirely  different  methods  of  Gainsborough.  Among 
other  Irish  masters  of  the  art  were  Houston,  Spooner, 
and  Purcell. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  century  a  broader  and  more 
robust  style  was  displayed  in  the  work  of  such  distin- 
guished engravers  as  James  Watson  (1740 — 1790),  William 
Dickinson  (born  1746,  died  in  Paris  1823),  and  John 
Raphael  Smith  (1752 — 18 12),  the  last  being  remarkable 
as  an  engraver  of  original  portraits.  Other  contemporary 
artists  were  John  Dean  and  James  W'alker,  who  worked 
with  great  accuracy  of  delicate  detail.  These  engravers 
confined  their  talent  mainly  to  English  portraits,  but 
there  was  another  group  whose  principal  work  was  the 
reproduction  of  paintings  by  old  masters  and  of  large 
figure-subjects,  notably  after  Wright  of  Derby.  Among 
them  are  William   Pether  (1731  — 1795),   Valentine  Green 


MASTERS   OF    MEZZOTINT  257 

(1739 — 18131,  and  Richard  Earlom  f  1743— 1822),  the 
last  being  held  in  particular  esteem  to-da\'  on  the 
Continent.  In  their  sheer  vigour,  their  command  of  tone, 
and  their  admirable  effect,  Earlom's  landscapes  after 
Hobbema,  his  flower  pieces  after  Dc  Heem,  and  his  still- 
life  after  Sn}'der,  are  veritable  masterpieces. 

Among  other  prominent  mezzotint  engravers  may  be 
mentioned  Richard  Houston,  Hugo  Spilsbury,  John  Dixon, 
Robert  Dunkarton,  Thomas  Burke,  and  James  and  William 
Ward,  all  working  together  in  London  during  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Occasionally  they  en- 
graved portraits  from  the  life  or  reproduced  their  own 
compositions,  but  the  greater  part  of  their  work  consisted 
in  engraving  after  the  contemporary  portrait- painters. 

The  art  of  Reynolds  seems  peculiarly  adapted  to 
mezzotint  rendering,  and  gave  inspiration  to  the  prints 
that  are  most  treasured  to-day,  but  the  engravers  of  the 
time  were  no  less  successful  in  translating  the  paintings  oi 
Gainsborough,  Romney,  Raeburn,  Hoppner,  and  others.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  best  English  mezzotinters 
always  preserved  a  distinct  originality  of  treatment,  and 
never  fell  into  an  indiscriminate  group  of  merely 
mechanical  craftsmen.  Within  certain  limits  the  more 
prominent  among  them  developed  a  separate  individuality 
of  style,  rendered  possible  by  the  great  improvements 
that  the  art  of  mezzotint  had  now  undergone  in  various 
branches  of  its  technique.  There  was  a  notable  advance 
in  more  scientific  and  careful  rocking  of  the  plate,  and  in 
the  careful  attention  given  to  the  refinements  of  printing, 
the  plate  being  printed  sometimes  in  a  velvety  black, 
sometimes  in  a  warm  brown  tone  ;  particularly  in  working 
proofs  and  proofs  before  letters  it  yielded  impressions  of 
unsurpassed  excellence. 

17 


258  ENGRAVING    IN    ENGLAND 

Towards  the  close  of  the  century  a  large  number  of 
mezzotint  engravers  found  their  inspiration  in  the  domestic 
and  rural  genre  subjects  of  George  Morland.  J.  R.  Smith, 
J.  and  W.  Ward,  P.  Dawe,  and  J.  Dean,  among  others, 
produced  some  of  their  best  work  after  Norland's  originals. 
Mention  must  also  be  made  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner's  "  Liber 
Studiorum,"  published  from  1807  to  18 19.  Seventy-one 
plates  in  all  were  issued,  a  large  number  being  etched 
by  Turner  himself,  and  then  finished  mostly  in  mezzotint 
by  engravers  such  as  Say,  Dunkarton,  Clint,  Lupton,  and 
Dawe. 

Till  after  the  beginning  of  last  century  mezzotint  re- 
mained the  popular  process  of  reproduction  in  England  ; 
but  the  sound  and  pure  mezzotint  technique  began  to 
be  ousted  by  a  new  style,  known  as  the  "  mixed  method," 
in  which  etching,  line-engraving,  stipple  and  roulette  work 
were  all  called  into  assistance,  with  unfortunate  results 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  in  England  a  large  number  of 
purely  mechanical  plates  of  this  type  were  produced  as 
mere  wall-decoration.  Steel  plates  were  also  employed 
for  mezzotint,  again  without  any  profit  to  the  art.  The 
teeth  of  the  rocker  can  make  only  a  shallow  impression 
on  the  steel,  and  mezzotint  engravers  on  steel  obtained 
limited  and  weak  tones  in  place  of  the  full  richness, 
procurable  from  the  copper  plate. 


VIII 

ENGRAVING  IN  GERMANY  DURING 
THE  SEVENTEE  NT  H  AND 
EIGHTEENTH    CENTURIES. 

OF  the  great  qualities  which  characterised  German 
engraving  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
only  a  small  portion  fell  to  the  inheritance  of  the  seven- 
teenth. German  art,  both  in  painting  and  in  its  natural 
dependant,  engraving,  seems  to  have  lost  its  individuality 
and  its  creative  power  ;  engraving,  indeed,  appears  to 
have  prolonged  a  precarious  existence  merely  as  an  off- 
shoot, drawing  its  vigour  from  the  flourishing  French, 
Dutch,  and  Flemish  Schools.  The  existing  productions  of 
the  period  show  simply  that,  in  spite  of  all  adverse  cir- 
cumstances, Germany  had  not  entirely  lost  pleasure  in  the 
art  of  engraving.  During  the  seventeenth  century  prints 
of  a  religious  type  disappeared  into  the  background  ; 
allegorical  and  genre  subjects  took  their  place  in  popularity. 
The  woodcut  fell  almost  completely  into  disuse,  while 
etching  and  engraving  became  the  exclusive  methods  of 
book-illustration.  The  principal  field,  however,  for 
engravers  was  supplied  by  portraits.  Engraved  portraits 
of  persons  of  distinction  were  produced  in  incredible 
numbers,  and  people  of  little  importance  also  gave  occu- 
pation to  the  engraver  in  perpetuating  their  features. 
The  engraving  of  portraits  was  largely  organised  into  a 

259 


26o 


ENGRAVING   IN   GERMANY 


systematic  trade  with  a  regular  division  of  labour,  the 
master-craftsman  executing  heads  and  hands,  apprentices 
and  assistants  adding  the  clothes  and  accessories. 

Augsburg  and  Nuremberg  were  the  principal  seats  of 
engraving  during  the  seventeenth  century  and  part  of 
the  eighteenth,  and  in   Augsburg  the   good   old  traditions 

of  the  art  were 
notabl)'  upheld  for 
longer  than  in 
Nuremberg. 
Alexander  Mair 
(1559 — 1620)  was 
working  at  Augs- 
burg about  1600, 
still  following  the 
style  of  the  six- 
teen th  century 
Little  Masters. 
Even  during  his 
lifetime  the  art  of 
the  Netherlands 
began  to  gain 
ground  in  the 
south.  Its  main 
supporter  was  the 
engraver  and  publisher,  Dominicus  Gustos  of  Antwerp, 
who  settled  at  Augsburg  in  1584,  and  was  a  successful 
imitator  of  Crispin  de  Passe.  From  his  studio  came  the 
large  collection  of  portraits,  '  Fuggerorum  et  Fuggerarum 
Effigies,'  illustrating  the  genealogy  of  the  Fugger  family. 
Custos's  step-sons,  Lucas  and  Wolfgang  Kilian,  adopted  his 
style.  Lucas  Kilian  (1579  — 1637),  the  more  important  of 
the  two,  began  his  career  in  his  father's  publishing  busi- 


Fig.  118.     Lucas  Kilian  :  Portrait  of 
Sebastian  Schedel  (detail). 


EGIDIUS   SADELER  261 

ness  by  engraving  after  Paolo  Veronese,  Tintoretto,  and 
others.  He  was  a  quick  worker,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
frequently  completed  two  engraved  portraits  within  a 
week  ;  but  on  his  best  plates  he  seems  to  have  worked 
with  careful  mechanical  precision,  particularly  in  his 
closely  and  finely  handled  earlier  portraits.  At  a  later 
period  Lucas  Kilian  sought  comparison  with  Goltzius, 
much  to  his  own  disadvantage. 

Like  Gustos,  the  brothers  Johann  and  Rafifael  Sadeler  of 
Brussels  also  transferred  their  sphere  of  work  to  Germany, 
and  for  a  time  were  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
More  important  than  these  two  engravers,  known  princi- 
pally for  their  great  fertility,  is  their  nephew  Egidius 
Sadeler  (died  1629),  He  was  a  fine  artist,  and  chiefly 
noteworthy  for  having  striven  with  some  success  in  his 
engravings  after  old  masters  to  analyse  and  preserve  the- 
style  and  treatment  of  the  original.  Particularly  excellent 
in  this  respect  are  Sadeler's  '  Virgin  with  the  Beasts '  from 
a  drawing  by  Dlirer,  and  a  set  of  pictures  of  the  months, 
after  Paul  Bril.  For  some  time  Sadeler  was  retained  in 
the  service  of  the  Emperor  Rudolf  H   at   Prague, 

At  Nuremberg  worked  Peter  Isselburg  of  Cologne 
(1568 — 1630),  a  student  of  the  northern  engravers,  and  of 
particular  note  as  a  portraitist,  Joachim  von  Sandrart 
estimated  Isselburg  as  the  most  distinguished  engraver  of 
his  time,  A  panoramic  view  of  Coburg,  almost  six  feet 
in  length,  engraved  by  Isselburg  with  genuine  power,  is 
indisputably  one  of  the  best  of  the  large  views  of  towns 
that  were  so  popular  at  this  period. 

Jeremias  Falk  (Danzig,  1610 — 1677)  probably  received 
his  first  instruction  from  William  Hondius  at  Danzig. 
He  worked  afterwards  at  Stockholm,  Amsterdam  and 
Hamburg,   and  with  a  style  based  on    that    of  the  Low 


262  ENGRAVING   IN   GERMANY 

Countries  became  an  engraver  of  sterling  merit.  In  many 
of  his  portraits,  notably  in  that  of  Daniel  Dilger,  he 
developed  marked  originality.  The  full  expansion  of  his 
distinct  power  and  facility  was  principally  hindered  by  the 
fact  that  the  portraits  in  oil,  which  it  was  his  lot  to  engrave 
in  his  own  country  as  well  as  at  Stockholm  and  Hamburg, 
were  in  the  main  quite  inferior  works  of  art. 

Mathias  Greuter  and  Friedrich  Brentel  worked  on  in 
Strasburg  quite  uninfluenced  by  the  newer  developments 
of  engraving,  and  in  the  first  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  still  remained  loyal  to  the  older  methods  of  the 
German  Little  Masters.  With  them  is  associated  the 
Swiss  Dietrich  Meyer  (born  at  Eglisau,  1572),  chiefly 
known  as  an  etcher.  His  work  is  very  reminiscent  of 
Holbein,  and  in  the  history  of  the  technical  side  of  en- 
graving he  deserves  no  unimportant  place  as  the  inventor 
of  soft-ground  etching. 

One  of  the  most  popular  names  in  the  German  art  of 
the  seventeenth  century  is  that  of  Merian.  The  founder  of 
the  Merian  family  was  Matthaus  Merian  (born  at  Basle  in 
1593).  He  worked  as  a  pupil  under  Dietrich  Meyer  at 
Zurich,  studied  also  under  Callot,  and  in  his  method  of 
composing  etched  landscapes  is  related  to  Savery,  Momper, 
and  Bril.  His  etchings  are  built  up  of  sharply  drawn, 
distinct  lines  ;  precision  of  line  rather  than  tonality  is  his 
aim.  From  1625  he  resided  in  Frankfurt,  and  carried  on 
with  success  the  publishing  business  of  his  father-in-law, 
Theodor  de  Bry.  The  series  of  topographical  volumes  which 
appeared  from  1640  onwards  with  innumerable  etched 
illustrations  has  served  more  than  anything  else  to  bring 
Merian's  name  into  prominence.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
in  1650  the  greater  part  of  the  work  dealing  with  the 
various   districts   of    Germany   was   complete.     The   best 


WENZEL   HOLLAR  263 

etchings  were  probably  the  work  of  Matthaus  himself,  but 
in  some  he  had  the  assistance  of  his  son,  Matthaus  Mcrian 
the  younger,  who  rose  to  some  eminence  later  as  a  painter 
and  as  an  occasional  etcher  of  portraits  in  the  style  of 
Van  Dyck.  Another  worker  on  the  plates  was  Wenzel 
Hollar.  In  spite  of  a  lack  of  sustained  excellence,  this 
topographical  work  of  Merian  remains  unsurpassed  of  its 
kind.  The  views  of  towns  are  rendered  in  sharp,  firm 
lines,  which  give  clear  expression  to  all  the  architectural 
features,  while  groups  of  trees  and  various  details  of  the 
foreground  lend  life  and  character  to  the  whole.  Almost 
larger  in  size  was  the  '  Theatrum  Europseum,'  a  kind  of 
illustrated  history  of  the  times,  consisting  of  fourteen  folio 
volumes.  The  publishing  firm  of  Merian  carried  on  its 
work  into  the  eighteenth  century^  on  the  s\-stem  laid  down 
by  its  founder. 

The  most  successful  etcher  among  the  followers  of  the 
elder  Merian  was  Wenzel  Hollar  (born  at  Prague  1607). 
After  working  successively  at  Frankfurt,  Strasburg,  and 
Cologne,  Hollar  travelled  in  1636  to  London  in  the 
company  of  the  famous  connoisseur  and  collector,  Thomas 
Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel.  There  he  resided  continuously 
till  his  death  in  1677,  with  the  exception  of  a  visit  to 
Antwerp  from  1644  to  1652,  and  several  extended  journeys. 
An  active  worker.  Hollar  etched  well-nigh  three  thousand 
plates,  obtaining  with  his  fine  point  a  \elvety  softness  of 
shadows  and  a  pleasing  effect.  From  Merian  he  had 
learned  exactly  the  right  way  of  composing  landscapes 
on  the  copper.  His  little  prints,  reproducing  bits  of  land- 
scapes from  the  sketch-books  that  accompanied  him  on 
his  many  journeys,  are  charming  in  their  absolute  rightness, 
their  simplicity  of  effect,  and  their  neatness  of  drawing. 
The   reproduction    of    these   original    drawings  forms  the 


264 


ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 


main  part  of  Hollar's  work,  along  with  his  series  of 
numerous  costume  plates  and  the  well-known  prints  which 
depict  fur,  mussels,  etc.,  with  extraordinary  observation 
of  nature.  Far  inferior  to  this  original  work  are  Hollar's 
portraits  and  figure  subjects  after  Van  Dyck  and  other 
Flemish  and  Dutch  masters.  Much  more  pleasing  are 
his  reproductions  after  the  older  landscape  painters,  such 
as  Breughel  and   Bril,  and  he  is  at  his  best  in  rendering 


Fig,  119.     Wenzel  Hollar  :  Landscape  (detail). 

the  tone  and  character  of  the  paintings  of  Elsheimer.  In 
the  style  and  quality  of  his  work  Hollar  stands  apart  from 
all  the  tendencies  of  his  time,  and  seems  like  a  belated 
product  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  work  was  done 
almost  entirely  in  foreign  lands,  and  remains  almost 
without  any  influence  on  German  art. 

Etching  in  Germany  at  this  period  was  influenced  not 
only  by  old  native  traditions,  but  also  by  Italian  art. 
This  is  shown  by  the  work  of  Gcorg  Pecham  of  Munich, 
and  Philipp  Uffcnbach  of    Frankfurt,  the  latter  of  whom 


JOHAXX    WILHKLM    BAUR  265 

was  an  artist  of  remarkable  orii;inality  and  the  teacher  of 
Adam  Elsheimer.  Elshcimer  pla\-ed  an  important  part  in 
the  history  of  sevcntcenth-centurx'  painting,  but  contributed 
Httle  to  the  development  of  etching,  even  supposing  that 
he  actually  did  execute  some  of  the  eight  indifferent 
etchings  that  are  usually  attributed  to  him.  The  Italian 
inlluence  appears  in  the  work  of  Johann  Wilhelm  Baur, 
a  follower  of  Tintoretto,  Poussin,  and  Claude.  Baur  (born 
at  Strasburg  about  1600,  worked  in  Italy,  Austria,  etc., 
died  1642)  was  an  artist  of  indisputably  great  talent  in 
etching  plates  on  a  large  scale,  containing  great  numbers 
of  figures  ;  his  fine  work  is  reminiscent  of  Stefano  della 
Bella.  Baur's  numerous  ceiling  decorations  were  repro- 
duced in  careful  etchings  by  Melchior  Kiissel  of  Augsburg, 
and  were  published  in  1670  with  the  title  of  the  '  Icono- 
graphia.' 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  Dutch  influence  makes 
itself  felt  in  Germany,  and  genuine  painter-etchers  begin 
to  appear,  such  as  Hans  Ulrich  Frank  (born  at  Kaufbeuren 
1603,  died  at  Augsburg  1680),  Heinrich  Schonfeld,  and 
Jonas  Umbach  (1624 — 1700),  the  last  being  the  author 
of  numerous  spirited  plates,  which  follow  Rubens  and  the 
later  Venetians,  but  at  the  same  time  display  considerable 
originality.  Johann  Philipp  Lembke  (1631  — 1713),  who 
worked  at  Nuremberg  and  later  at  Stockholm,  was  a 
follower  of  Rembrandt. 

The  foremost  upholder  of  Dutch  methods  on  German 
soil  was  Johann  Heinrich  Roos  (born  at  Ottersburg  163 1, 
worked  at  Frankfurt,  died  16S5).  He  studied  in  Holland, 
and  worked  in  the  manner  of  Dujardin,  Berchem,  and 
Marc  de  Bye,  both  as  animal  painter  and  as  etcher.  He 
places  his  animals,  usually  pasturing  goats  and  sheep,  amid 
Roman  landscape,  and  groups  them  carefully,  avoiding  the 


266 


ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY 


fault  of  haphazard  reahsm  and  want  of  arrangement  into 
which  Dutch  etchers  of  animal  pieces  so  often  fall.  Roos 
has  the  knack  of  giving  a  happy  expression  of  light  and 
air  ;  his  print  of  '  The  Resting  Shepherd '  breathes  the 
sultry  heat  of  afternoon.  Johann  Heinrich's  younger 
brother,  Theodor  Roos,  held  in  some  esteem  as  a  painter, 


Fig.  I20.     Jonas  Umbach :  Tritons  (detail). 


and  his  son,  Johann  Melchior,  both  made  occasional  essays 
with  the  etching-needle. 

Genre  scenes  of  peasant  life  found  a  gifted  interpreter 
in  Matthias  Scheits  {c.  1640 — c.  1700),  a  Hamburg  painter, 
who  etched  in  a  light  and  easy  style  somewhat  in  the 
spirit  of  Ostade.  A  powerful,  and  for  this  period  a  re- 
markable etcher,  though  essentially  imitative,  was  Joachim 
Franz  Beich  of  Munich  (1666 — 1748),  who  took  as  his 
model    first    Salvator    Rosa,   then    Poussin  and  Berchem 


FRENCH    INFLUENCE  267 

Joachim  von  Sandrart  (born  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Main 
1606,  died  at  Nuremberg  1688),  a  painter  and  writer  on 
art,  was  originally  trained  as  an  engraver,  and  though  he 
only  rarely  used  the  burin  himself,  he  made  constant  and 
successful  attempts  to  raise  the  art  of  engraving  in 
Germany  to  a  higher  artistic  level.  For  his  large  "  German 
Academy  of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting,"  which 
appeared  from  1675  to  1679,  he  made  it  his  aim  to  have 
the  numerous  illustrations  executed  by  the  best  obtain- 
able artists  of  his  day,  with  the  idea  of  giving  them  an 
opportunity  of  winning  success  by  a  practical  display  of 
their  talents.  Philipp  Kilian  of  Augsburg,  Johann  Jacob 
Thurneysser,  and  Sandrart's  nephew,  Jacob  von  Sandrart, 
Avere  his  principal  assistants  on  this  great  work.  The 
last  named,  Jacob  von  Sandrart  (Nuremberg,  1630 — 
1708),  was  a  successful  portrait-engraver,  particularly 
worthy  of  attention  where  he  worked  direct  from  nature. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  French 
engraving  began  to  exercise  a  far  more  potent  influence 
in  Germany  than  that  of  the  Dutch  etchers.  The  splendid 
development  of  line-engraving  in  France  came  as  a  fresh 
revelation,  and  the  new  style  of  the  French  engravers 
met  with  such  ready  acceptation  that  from  then  till  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  German  engraving  re- 
mained entirely  dependent  upon  that  of  France.  This 
dependence,  however,  was  no  loss  to  Germany,  but  rather  a 
distinct  gain,  in  that  all  the  national  qualities  which  German 
■engraving  had  once  possessed  had  completely  vanished, 
and  the  forces  necessary  for  a  new  and  individual  awaken- 
ing were  entirely  wanting.  The  lesson  taught  by  the 
French  was  that  of  solid  and  vigorous  technique,  which  is 
just  where  German  art  fails  to-da}- ;  and  we  frequently 
find   German  engravers  of  this  period  travelling  to  Paris 


268  ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY 

to  seek  their  education  there.  Among  the  first  to  intro- 
duce French  methods  into  Germany  were  the  brothers 
Johann  and  EHas  Hainzelmann  of  Augsburg.  Both  went 
at  an  early  age  to  study  under  Francois  Poilly  in  Paris.. 
Johann  (1640 — 1693),  the  more  important  of  the  two,, 
became  French  to  the  finger-tips,  and  in  his  best  works 
was  almost  equal  to  his  master,  as  is  shown  by  his  portrait 
of  Louvois  after  Vouet,  engraved  while  he  was  still  in 
Paris. 

In  1688  Hainzelmann  settled  in  Berlin  as  Court 
Engraver,  and  executed  a  portrait  of  Derfflinger,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  brilliant  rendering  of  a  striking  person- 
ality, and  a  portrait  of  the  Empress  Sophie  Charlotte,. 
whose  affected  expression  fails  to  spoil  the  fineness  of  the 
workmanship.  Le.ss  successful  is  his  portrait  of  the  Great 
Elector.  Johann  Hainzelmann  also  produced  larger  plates 
after  Carracci,  Bourdon,  and  similar  masters.  Working 
immediately  after  Hainzelmann  in  Berlin  was  another 
powerful  engraver  of  the  same  type,  Samuel  Blesendorf 
(died   1706). 

At  Augsburg  the  French  spirit  was  represented  by  the 
younger  of  the  brothers  Hainzelmann,  Elias  (1640 — 1693); 
at  Munich  by  Gustav  Ambling ;  while  Johann  Jacob 
Thurneyssen,  or  Thurneysser,  of  Basle  (1636 — i/ii)^ 
worked  in  various  parts  of  Germany  as  a  somiewhat 
successful  follower  of  Claude  Mellan. 

From  the  union  between  German  engravers  and  the 
French  School  sprang  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of 
engraving  produced  by  the  eighteenth  century — Georg 
Friedrich  Schmidt  (Berlin,  1712 — 1775).  At  first  a 
student  at  the  Berlin  Academy,  he  afterwards  received  a 
good  technical  training  from  an  indifferent  engraver,  Georg 
Paul  Busch.     Of  his  own  accord  he  was  workintj  in   the 


Fig.  121.     Gcori;  Friednch  Schmidt:  Portrait  of  Ouentin  de  la  Tour  (detail). 

269 


270  ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 

manner  of  Edclinck  and  the  French  engravers  of  his  school 
(as  is  shown  by  his  portrait  of  Clermont),  when  in  1736 
an  opportunity  offered  itself  of  his  going  to  Paris,  where 
he  became  a  pupil  of  Larmessin.  In  his  reproductions  of 
the  paintings  of  the  Watteau  School  Schmidt  rose  instantly 
superior  to  his  French  acquaintances,  but  he  was  compelled 
at  first  to  suffer  his  work,  such  as  '  Nicaise,'  'The  Falcon,* 
and  '  Youth,'  to  go  out  into  the  world  under  Larmessin's 
name.  A  commission,  however,  from  the  publisher 
Odieuvre  for  some  small  engraved  portraits  soon  directed 
Schmidt  towards  the  class  of  work  for  which  he 
possessed  such  peculiar  talent.  His  first  striking  success 
was  won  by  his  large  portrait,  dated  1739,  of  Henry  Louis 
de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  after  a  fine  original  by  Rigaud. 
For  a  long  time  the  art  of  engraving  had  produced  no 
plate  which  could  hold  its  own  with  this  for  power  and 
energy.  This  was  followed  by  portraits  of  Jean  Baptiste 
Rousseau  and  of  Chambrier,  in  which  Schmidt  aimed  at  a 
more  delicate  and  softer  effect  with  the  subordination  of 
mere  technical  dexterity  ;  yet  throughout  his  life  he 
remained  faithful  to  the  system  of  laying  strictly  regular 
sets  of  lines  with  absolutely  conventional  execution.  The 
hardness  that  one  feels  in  the  '  De  la  Tour '  has  been 
successfully  overcome  in  his  portrait  of  the  painter 
Mignard  after  Rigaud,  finished  in  1744.  The  robust,, 
painter-like  treatment  of  this  incomparable  print  almost 
makes  the  spectator  forget  that  he  has  before  his  eyes 
mere  black  and  white.  The  artist  seems  in  this  print  to  have 
employed  the  burin  with  consummate  ease  in  the  rendering 
of  texture  and  material  ;  it  is  a  masterpiece  of  realism.  This, 
portrait  of  Mignard  established  Schmidt's  fame  as  a  great 
master  of  technique.  With  only  trifling  lapses  he  main- 
tained his  style  at  this  high  level  of  excellence.     It  consists 


GF.ORG    FRIEDRICH   SCHMIDT  271 

essentially  in  the  completion  of  the  plate  without  any 
assistance  from  etching,  and  closely  resembles  the  manner 
of  the  older  Drevet.     The  lines  are  cut  deeply  and  firmly 


Fig.  122.     Georg  Friedrich  Schmidt :  Christ  and  the  Daughter 
of  Jairus  (detail). 

in  the  copper,  the  thickness  of  each  stroke  as  it  progresses 
from  shadow  into  light  being  moderated  with  unfailing 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  tone.  In  expressing  materials 
and  surface  texture,  the  system  of  lines  is  so  carefully  chosen 


272  ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 

that  it  seems  to  be  automatically  inspired  by  the  nature 
of  the  object  represented.  Schmidt  excels  particularly  in 
his  rendering  of  silk,  polished  wood,  and  white  textiles. 

In  spite  of  his  now  fully  ensured  position  in  Paris, 
Schmidt  determined  to  return  to  Berlin  as  his  permanent 
home.  In  Berlin  he  remained  faithful  to  the  style  he  had 
developed  in  France,  without  any  loss  of  harmony  in  his 
work,  for  his  French  method  of  treatment  and  the  some- 
what French  pose  of  his  subjects  were  perfectly  becoming 
to  the  personages  of  Frederick's  court,  whom  he  now  had 
to  portray.  In  Berlin  he  stood  in  a  similar  relationship  to 
the  painter  Antoine  Pesne  as  he  had  done  earlier  in  Paris 
to  Rigaud. 

Without  any  notable  abatement  of  power,  Schmidt  to 
the  end  of  his  career  remained  in  the  high  position  which 
he  had  now  reached,  though  he  never  created  a  second 
Mignard.  He  showed  wonderful  technical  skill  in  his 
happy  rendering  of  the  soft  light  of  Pesne's  painting,  as  is 
shown  in  Pesne's  portraits  of  himself,  and  of  \"oguell, 
Filers,  and  others. 

In  1757  Schmidt  received  an  imperial  summons  to  St. 
Petersburg  for  the  purpose  of  founding  there  a  school  of 
engraving,  and  of  executing  a  portrait  of  the  Czarina 
Elisabeth.  This  engraving,  after  Tocque's  painting,  occu- 
pied him  till  1762.  In  spite  of  all  the  pains  he  bestowed 
upon  his  work,  the  clumsy  magnificence  of  the  costume 
prevented  his  ever  obtaining  any  satisfactory  and  har- 
monious effect  ;  but  his  portraits  of  the  Esterhaz}-s, 
Schuvvaloffs,  Rasumowskys  and  other  notabilities  of  St. 
Petersburg,  executed  concurrently  with  the  other,  rank 
among  his  finest  works. 

Etching    plays    an  important  part   in    Schmidt's    work. 
In    his    early    prints    made    in    Paris    under    Larmessin's 


GEORG    FRIEDRICH    SCHMIDT  273 

guidance  he  had  already  used  the  needle,  but  later  in 
Berlin  he  frequently  made  etchings,  and  after  his  return 
from  St.  Petersburg  almost  entirely  abandoned  the  burin 
in  order  to  devote  himself  to  pure  etching. 

As  etcher,  no  less  than  as  engraver,  Schmidt  was  the 
most  efficient  craftsman  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
Germany.  In  his  ideas  of  composition  and  in  his  search 
for  artistic  expression  he  took  Rembrandt  as  his  model,  and 
these  prints  invariably  betray  the  hand  of  the  engraver 
to  whom  conventional  regularity  in  the  laying  of  his 
lines  has  become  second  nature.  Schmidt's  etchings  were 
executed  after  real  or  supposed  paintings  by  Rembrandt, 
or  after  his  own  studies,  and  always  convey  a  pleasing 
and  harmonious  effect.  The  artistic  limitations  amid 
which  Schmidt  had  grown  up  forbade  his  ever  grasping 
the  real  essence  of  Rembrandt's  art,  but  he  shows  an 
astonishing  facility  in  giving  expression  in  his  etched 
reproductions  not  only  to  Rembrandt's  colour  schemes 
but  also  to  his  actual  brush-work.  This  is  shown  by  his 
print  after  Rembrandt  of  '  Samson  threatening  his  Father- 
in-law,'  and  by  '  The  Jewish  Bride,'  a  quite  different  type 
of  etching,  but  one  that  is  again  a  remarkable  translation 
of  the  original.  This  latter  print  is,  in  its  sheer  brilliance, 
one  of  the  finest  etchings  that  has  ever  been  made. 

While  Schmidt  upheld  French  methods  in  Berlin,  his 
contemporary,  Jacob  Schmutzer  (1733 — 18 11),  was  loyal  to 
the  same  principles  in  Vienna.  After  some  early  struggles 
he  succeeded  in  going  to  Paris  in  1762,  and  there,  like  so 
many  German  artists,  was  enrolled  as  a  pupil  of  Wille. 
This  Paris  period  was  very  fruitful  of  results  in  Schmutzer's 
work,  but  it  was  all  too  short  to  make  up  entirely  for  his 
lack  of  sound  training  in  earlier  days.  He  never  succeeded 
in  attaining  real  depth  and  fineness  of  conception  in  his 

18 


274  ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 

work.  In  contrast  to  Schmidt,  it  was  in  his  portraits — 
the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  Prince  Kaunitz,  etc. — that 
Schmutzer  was  at  his  weakest.  Schmutzer's  reputation 
rests  on  his  engravings  after  pictures  by  Rubens  ;  he 
renders  their  character  with  great  success  on  the  whole, 
if  we  overlook  his  somewhat  academical  treatment  of 
the  nude.  His  technique  is  robust  and  brilliant,  but 
his  method  of  setting  his  lines  is  too  aggressive  and 
mechanical.  Schmutzer  trained  a  number  of  pupils,  and 
for  a  long  time  remained  a  powerful  influence  among  the 
engravers  of  Vienna.  No  artist  of  special  distinction 
appeared  among  his  followers,  yet  one  must  give  special 
mention  at  this  point  to  Adam  Bartsch  (Vienna,  1757 — 
T821),  the  author  of  the  "  Peintre  Graveur,"  who  with 
remarkable  technical  skill  executed  a  number  of  etchings 
after  the  old  and  later  masters,  as  well  as  some  line- 
engravings. 

Somewhat  isolated  from  the  recognised  schools  is 
Johann  Friedrich  Bause  of  Leipzig  (1738 — 1814) 
who  selected  Schmidt  and  Wille  as  his  patterns,  but 
otherwise  was  entirely  self-educated.  Bause's  principal 
claim  to  honour  lies  in  his  vigorous  reproduction  of 
the  portraits  of  Anton  Graff,  and  in  the  fact  that  he  has 
handed  down  to  posterity  the  features  of  many  of  his 
contemporaries  with  great  naturalness  and  truth  to  life. 
One  finds  least  pleasure  in  his  engravings  after  Mengs, 
Dietrich,  and  others. 

A  successful  exponent  of  French  principles  was  Gott- 
hard  von  Miiller  (1747 — 1830),  who  worked  in  Stuttgart,, 
and  belonged  to  the  group  of  engravers  inspired  by  Wille. 
It  was  his  keen  endeavour  to  combine  the  fluent  technique 
of  the  earlier  Netherlandish  engravers  with  the  brilliant 
execution  of  his  contemporary  Bervic,  and  he  sought  also- 


GOTTHARD   VON    MULLER 


275 


to  borrow  from  the  English  engraver,  Strange,  something 
of  his  soft  treatment  of  flesh.  Miiller's  portrait  of  Louis 
Galloche  after  Tocqu^,  and  his  large,  finely  handled 
portrait  of  Louis  XVI  after  Duplessis,  may  count  among 
the  best   results  of  this  French  and  German   union.     His 


Fig.   123.      Johaiin  Fricdricli  Bausc  :   Portrait  ol  J.  G.  Sulzcr  (detail). 

'Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,'  after  Turnbull,  ranks  as  one 
of  the  most  successful  reproductions  of  more  modern 
paintings.  At  a  later  period  Miiller,  with  great  detriment 
to  his  fine  talent,  fell  under  the  influence  of  the  classical 
revival  among  contemporary  Italian  engravers,  as  is  shown 
b)'  his  '  Madonna  dclla  Sedia,'  etc. 


276  ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 

Gotthard  von  Miiller's  talent  was  inherited  by  his  son. 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  Muller  (1782 — 1816)  was  the  most 
gifted  and  brilliant  upholder  of  the  stern  conviction  that 
the  great  province  of  engraving  lay  in  the  reproduction 
of  compositions  by  the  classical  masters  of  Italy.  His 
first  important  work,  '  St.  John  the  Evangelist,'  after 
Domenichino,  shows  all  the  strength  as  well  as  the  weak- 
ness of  his  school;  the  artificial  arrangement  of  the  line- 
work  and  the  conventional  machinery  by  which  the  whole 
result  is  built  up  are  entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the 
qualities  of  the  painting  and  the  style  of  the  original 
reproduced.  Miiller's  '  Sistine  Madonna '  was  for  long 
esteemed  as  an  undeniable  masterpiece  of  modern 
engraving  and  as  a  faithful  interpretation  of  Raphael's 
art.  The  print  is  undeniably  harmonious  and  striking, 
though  Raphael's  sense  of  style  is  never  really  grasped, 
but  is  merely  transferred  to  the  copper  with  a  soft 
sentimentality  absolutely  alien  to  the  spirit  of  the  original. 

One  succeeds  best  in  coming  to  a  right  appreciation 
of  this  and  similar  reproductive  engravings  by  keeping 
strictly  before  one's  eyes  the  fact  that  the  spirit  of  the 
period  has  stamped  its  own  peculiar  mark  on  these  and 
on  every  other  product  of  the  time,  and  by  disregarding 
as  far  as  possible  the  originals  on  which  the  engravings 
are  based.  Miiller's  example  was  completely  fatal  to  the  less 
talented  engravers  who  succeeded  him.  After  long  suffering 
under  the  spell,  German  engraving  is  only  now  beginning  to 
free  itself  from  the  mannerism  into  which  it  was  beguiled 
by  Bervic,  Wille,  and   Miiller. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  in  Germany  etching 
was  practised  by  numerous  painters  as  well  as  by  pro- 
fessional etchers,  and  in  the  art  history  of  the  time  it 
deserves  an  important  place. 


JOHANN    ELIAS    RIDIXGKR  277 

The    originator  of   an    almost    new    class    of    work     in 
etching    was    Johann    Elias    RicHngcr   (1695 — 1767),    who 
worked  at  Augsburg  and  for  a  time  at  Regensburg,  and 
may  be  described  as  the  classical  artist  of  hunting  scenes. 
He  pictures  the  quarry  now  browsing  quietly,  now  in  terror- 
stricken   flight,  and   again    at    the    moment  of   its    death. 
Ridinger's    special    skill    lies    in    his    power    of  correctly 
rendering  moments  of  intense  interest  and  active  motion, 
and   it   is   this  correctness  that   has    made  his    reputation 
among    lovers    of   the    chase.     Yet    Ridinger's    is    only    a 
mediocre  talent.     His  knowledge  of  the  form  and  anatomy 
even    of  the  animals    most    frequently  portrayed  by  him 
is  superficial   and    limited.      In   the  delicate  expression  of 
animal  character  Ridinger  is  never  successful :  his  hounds 
have   always    the    same   inexpressive    grimace,   the    same 
lack  of  character,  whether  at  rest  or  in  the  full  heat  of 
the   chase  ;    his    birds    are  always  clumsy  and    ill-drawn. 
His  lack  of  genuine  skill  is  particularly  apparent  when   he 
departs  from  his  usual  class  of  subject  and  undertakes  to 
draw  direct  from  nature  animal   forms,  such  as   lions,  of 
which  he  has  little  knowledge.     His  method  of  drawing  is 
firm   and  forcible  ;  he  uses  a   broad   needle  and   bites  his 
plate  deeply  ;  he  cares  nothing  for  half-tones  and  qualities 
of  colour.      His    prints   sufficed   admirably   to    fulfil    their 
purpose  in  the  satisfaction  of  a  public  want,  as  is  shown 
by  their  continuous  popularity  till  the  present  time.     His 
collected    work    shows    a    total    of    nearly     1,300    prints. 
Among  the  best  of  these  are  the  extremely  typical  series 
of  '  The   Pleasure   of  Princes '  and    '  The    Description    of 
Wild  Beasts.'     In  twelve  folio-sized  prints  he  treated  the 
story   of  the   'Fall   of   Man'  as  an    opportunity    for   the 
display  of  the  crowds  of  wild  animals  that  filled  Paradise. 
Christian  VVilhelm  Ernst  Dietrich  (born  at  Weimar  17 12, 


278  ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY 

died  at  Dresden  1774)  won  much  admiration  among  his 
contemporaries,  who  saw  in  him  the  spirit  of  the  seven- 
teenth-century Dutch  artists  revivified.  To-day  he  appears 
to  us  a  poor  imitator  of  the  period  from  which  he  has 
slavishly  adapted  both  style  and  method  of  composition. 
His  etching  shows  a  fluent  and  yet  always  forcible  manner 
that,  like  his  painting,  bears  an  outward  resemblance  to 
Dutch  work.  For  biblical  subjects  Dietrich  usually 
chooses  Rembrandtesque  motives,  and  even  ventures  to 
vie  with  the  '  Hundred  Guilder  '  print  by  producing  a  large 
etching  of  the  same  subject.  In  peasant  genre  he  is  at 
the  beck  of  Ostade  ;  he  never  records  the  result  of  original 
observation  ;  everything  is  supplied  at  second-hand.  In 
spite  of  all  this  Dietrich  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant 
artist ;  but  he  was  essentially  receptive  and  impressionable, 
and  reminiscences  of  others'  work  were  a  perpetual 
stumbling-block  in  his  path.  The  numerous  states  through 
which  Dietrich  made  his  etchings  pass  have  given  them 
among  connoisseurs  and  collectors  much  greater  attention 
than  they  deserve. 

Among  the  etchers  of  this  period  Salomon  Gcssner,  of 
Zurich  (1730 — 1788),  must  not  be  omitted,  even  though  he 
can  only  be  mentioned  as  an  amateur.  The  etched  illus- 
trations with  which  he  decorated  the  editions  of  his 
"  Idylls  "  are  weak  in  drawing,  but  they  possess  a  certain 
naif  charm,  that  amid  the  vogue  of  French  artificiality 
came  like  a  fresh  breeze  from  nature,  and  enlisted  many 
admirers  for  Gessner's  art. 

Contemporary  with  Schmidt  in  Berlin,  but  absolutely 
independent  of  him,  was  working  the  most  original  artist 
whom  eighteenth-century  Germany  has  to  show.  This 
was  Daniel  Chodowiecki,  who  was  born  at  Danzig  in  1726, 
and  died  at  Berlin  in    1801.     Beset  by  many  difficulties, 


DANIEL   CHODOWIECKI  279 

and  largely  self-taught,  he  managed  to  obtain  some  training 
as  an  artist,  worked  at  miniature  and  enamel  painting,  and 
about  the  years  1756  to  1758  began  to  give  his  attention 
to  etching.  Without  ever  having  been  in  France,  Chodo- 
wiecki  is  to  be  reckoned  a  pupil  of  the  French  schools, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  from  French  illustrators  and  painters 
of  contemporary  manners  that  he  learned  his  i}iilieu. 
Chardin,  Risen,  Moreau,  Saint-Aubin,  were  Chodowiecki's 
models,  but  the  resemblance  is  only  superficial,  a  matter  of 
outward  form  and  technical  treatment ;  by  the  atmosphere 
of  French  art  Chodowiecki  was  never  influenced.  With 
keen  observation  and  with  an  extraordinary  talent  for  the 
analysis  and  expression  of  character,  he  sought  his  subjects 
amid  his  native  surroundings.  In  this  way  Chodowiecki 
won  a  unique  reputation  as  the  illustrator  of  the  domestic 
life  of  the  Prussian  people  and  of  Berlin  society  in  the 
second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  outward 
appearance  of  the  classes  he  depicted  was  perpetuated  by 
him  in  a  much  more  faithful  and  unbiassed  spirit  than 
was  the  type  of  French  society  by  the  Parisian  illustrators. 
Chodowiecki  never  attempted  to  deny  the  essentially 
honest  and  middle-class  traits  of  his  models  and  their 
surroundings ;  in  fact  he  seems  to  accentuate  them  in 
deliberate  contrast  to  the  lightness  and  laxity  of  the 
French  illustrators  of  manners.  The  strength,  as  well  as 
the  limit  of  his  talent,  is  shown  in  his  power  of  seizing 
and  giving  life  to  natural  incidents  and  characteristic 
situations.  As  soon  as  Chodowiecki  applied  himself  to  a 
picture  whose  scope  extended  beyond  his  immediate 
horizon  he  became  dull  and  affected. 

Between  the  years  1757  and  1759  Chodowiecki  made" 
intermittent  and  tentative  experiments  in  etching  single 
figures  and  groups,  in   which  Chardin's  influence  is  clearly 


280 


ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 


apparent.  Eight  years  later  began  a  period  of  regular 
unbroken  activity  with  the  needle.  About  1767  Chodo- 
wiecki  discovered  in  the  illustration  of  pocket-books  and 
almanacs  the  style  of  subject  which  was  soon  to  make 
him   so   popular   an   artist.      As    a    rule    he    drew    on  the 

copper  from  light  pen- 
cil sketches  with  the 
utmost  sharpness  of 
detail,  even  in  a  tiny 
head.  His  method  of 
working  w  ith  a  certain 
regularity  of  line,  some- 
what as  if  he  were  using 
a  burin,  brings  a  re- 
collection of  Moreau, 
but  he  never  reaches 
the  same  brilliancy  of 
effect  that  Moreau  ob- 
tained. The  finer  gra- 
dations of  tone  and  the 
finishing  touches  were 
all  given  with  the  dry- 
point.  If  Chodowiecki 
used  the  burin  at  all,  it 
was  only  to  a  very 
small  extent.  So  long 
as  he  was  occupied 
with  quite  small  plates  his  work  invariably  had  an  appear- 
ance of  freshness  and  truth,  and  his  drawing  was  correct 
and  natural  ;  his  art  failed  him  in  pictures  where  the  figures 
were  of  any  size.  Prints  such  as  *  General  Zietcn  sitting  in 
the  Presence  of  his  King'  and  its  companion  piece, 
'  Zieten  sleeping  before  his  King,'  are    dull    and    clumsy, 


Fig.  124.     Daniel  Chodowiecki :    Illustra- 
tion to  Lessing's  "  Minna  von  Barnhelm." 


DANIEL   CHODOWIECKI  281 

recalling  the  popular  broad-sheets  depicting  the  same 
persons. 

In  his  illustrations  (fig.  124)  to  Lessing's  "Minna  von 
Barnhelm  "  (1769)  Chodowiecki  first  entered  on  the  theme 
of  middle-class  genre  which  was  so  eminently  adapted  to  his 
genius.  The  success  of  these  illustrations  was  so  complete 
that  an  immediate  reissue  of  the  twenty-four  etchings 
became  necessary.  His  illustrations  made  in  1771  for 
Gessner's  "  Idylls  "  show  the  artist  at  the  highest  pitch  of 
his  technical  capability.  In  their  brilliance  of  effect  they 
have  almost  the  appearance  of  delicate  line-engravings. 

From  this  time  till  the  close  of  his  active  career  there 
was  no  sign  of  falling-off  in  Chodowiecki's  work.  In  his 
print  'A  Painter's  Studio'  we  see  the  artist  himself  seated 
at  a  table  drawing,  while  his  family  are  grouped  about 
him  sharing  the  same  room — a  true  and  realistic  picture  not 
only  of  German  middle-class  life  but  of  the  artist's  method 
of  work  and  of  his  natural  surroundings.  In  this  etching, 
and  indeed  in  every  print  where  Chodowiecki  pictures 
what  has  passed  before  his  own  eyes,  he  shows  his  best 
side,  his  clearness  of  perception,  his  power  of  grasping  a 
situation.  When,  however,  as  in  many  of  his  illustrations, 
he  endeavours  to  point  a  moral,  the  result  is  an  unpleasant 
feeling  of  dull  and  sober  pedantry.  It  is  only  fair  to  add 
that  to  a  large  extent  this  is  due  to  the  books  which  he 
had  to  illustrate. 

Chodowiecki's  drawing  seems  to  grow  sharper  and  more 
definite  in  proportion  to  the  sinallness  of  his  subject,  as  is 
shown  by  his  sketches  on  the  borders  of  his  plates.  Such 
sketches  are  usually  small  figures  and  minute  scenes 
scratched  lightly  with  the  needle  at  the  side  of  the  picture 
proper.  They  allow  free  play  for  all  the  fantastic  ideas 
that    seek    escape    from    many   an    artist's    brain    in    the 


ENGRAVING    IN   GERMANY 


course  of  his  work,  and  in  Chodovviecki's  case  they  form 
not  the  least  charming  part  of  his  inventions.  In  these 
marginal  sketches  Chodowiecki  records  notes  that  have 
sometimes  a  close,  and  sometimes  a  remote,  reference  to 
his    main   subject.     In   his  case,   moreover,  they  serve  to 

mark  the  early  impres- 


sions of  his  plates,  for 
before  printing  the 
actual  edition  he  was 
always  accustomed  to 
burnish  off  these  mar- 
ginal notes.  Chodo- 
wiecki was  particularly 
fond  of  issuing  his 
prints  in  numerous 
states.  He  was  not, 
however,  always  in- 
duced by  artistic  mo- 
tives to  make  his  many 
little  alterations  ;  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that 
he  had  before  his  eyes 
the  collective  instinct, 
with  its  insatiate  desire 
of  possessing  every 
possible  state  of  each 
different  print. 
Daniel    Chodowiccki's    brother    Gottfried    and    his    son 

Wilhelm  worked  for  some  time  as  his  assistants.     In  their 

comparatively  few    original   etchings    they  appear    as    his 

unmistakable  followers. 

Working    at    the    same    time    in     Berlin    was    Johann 

Wilhelm    Meil    (1733—1805),    an    extraordinarily    prolific 


Fig.  125.      Daniel  Chodowiecki :   Illus 
tration  to  Gellert's  "Fables." 


CHRISTIAN    BERNHARD   RODE  283 

etcher.  Possessed  of  a  natural  genius  for  ornament,  he 
was  quick  in  the  latter  part  of  his  career  to  adapt  himself 
to  the  changes  of  fashion  and  to  make  a  cunning  return 
from  the  rococo  style  to  the  classical  revival  which  came 
into  vogue  from  France.  Allegorical  and  mythological 
book-illustrations  and  vignettes  form  the  principal  part  of  his 
achievements.  On  the  whole  Meil  differs  considerably  in 
manner  from  Chodowiecki,  but  his  illustrations  to  Engel's 
"  Mimik  "  and  N  icolai's  "  Sebaldus  Nothanker  "  show  a  fine 
grasp  of  character.  He  works  with  a  light  and  pliant 
touch,  and  his  prints  are  bright  and  pleasing.  At  times 
Meil  etched  after  Bernhard  Rode  and  other  artists.  The 
total  number  of  his  plates  is  more  than  a  thousand. 

Christian  Bernhard  Rode  (1725  — 1797)  is  the  single 
painter  in  the  Berlin  art  circle  of  this  period  who  comes 
into  notice  as  an  etcher  as  well.  He,  too,  received  his 
training  in  Paris,  and  in  his  mythological  compositions 
there  is  a  flash  here  and  there  of  the  gay  spirit  of  rococo, 
but  the  remainder  of  his  work  is  dominated  by  the  calm 
severity  of  the  academical  ideals  which  were  now  gaining 
ground.  In  the  technique  of  his  etchings  Rode  seems  to 
have  chosen  Tiepolo  as  his  model.  He  uses  the  needle 
with  great  breadth  and  freedom,  accentuating  only  the 
prominent  features  of  his  subject,  sometimes  with  a 
remarkable  effect  of  colour.  His  prints,  amounting  to 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty,  some  of  very  large  size,  usually 
deal  with  subjects  from  the  Bible  and  from  the  history  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Among  his  best  and  most  careful  work 
are  his  etchings  after  Schliiter's  sculptures,  particularly  that 
after  the  '  Head  of  a  Dying  Warrior'  at  Berlin  (fig.  126). 

Daniel  Berger  (Berlin,  1744 — 1824)  covered  a  large 
amount  of  ground  both  as  engraver  and  as  etcher,  and 
is  one  of  the  few  artists  in  Germany  who  practised  stipple 


284 


ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 


with  any  success.  It  was  only  rarely,  however,  that 
Berger  rose  above  a  certain  mediocrity.  He  executed 
numerous  book-illustrations,  showing  himself  a  loyal 
adherent  to  Chodowiecki.  His  work  is  vigorous  and 
striking,  and  is  quite  uninfluenced  by  the  technical 
weakness  which  was  already  prevalent  in  the  engraving;  of 
his  time. 


Fig.  126.     Bernhard  Rode:   'Head  of  a  Dying  Warrior'  (detail). 

The  etchers  who  worked  in  other  parts  of  Germany  fall 
even  less  easily  into  definite  groups  than  ".those  of  Berlin. 
Ferdinand  Kobell  (1740 — 1799)  studied  under  Wille  in 
Paris,  and  worked  at  Mannheim  and  Munich,  His 
etchings  are  usually  small  landscapes,  in  which  he  follows 
Ruisdael,  Everdingen,  and  Waterloo,  always  viewing 
nature  as  though  with  the  eyes  of  his  predecessor.     In  this 


FRANZ   EDMUND   WEIROTTER 


285 


respect  he  is  somewhat  akin  to  Dietrich.  Friedrich  Oeser 
of  Leipzig  (17 17 — 1790)  resembles  the  older  Dutch  etchers 
in  his  closeness  and  precision  of  execution,  but  his  art  has 
no  other  connection  with  theirs. 

Franz  Edmund  Weirottcr  (1730 — 1771)  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  landscape  etchers  of  the  period.  After  study- 
ing under  VVille  in  Paris  he  worked  in  Vienna,  producing 
numerous  landscape  plates  mainly  after  old  masters  such 
as    Van    Neer   and    Van    Goyen,  who  gave  a  favourable 


Fig.  127.     Ferdinand  Kobell  :  Landscape. 


opportunity  for  the  display  of  his  sound  technical  ability. 
Karl  Wilhelm  Kolbe  (born  at  Berlin  1757,  died  at  Dresden 
1835)  inclines  towards  the  masters  of  classical  landscape 
in  his  numerous  and  finely  handled  plates.  He  is  eminently 
skilful  in  rendering  luxurious  vegetation,  without,  however, 
having  any  real  understanding  of  plant  form  and  w  ithout 
rising  above  a  conventional  treatment  of  foliage.  Of  the 
same  type  is  Johann  Georg  von  Dillis  (Munich,  1759 — 
1 841).  Johann  Christian  Reinhardt  (1761  — 1847)  worked 
mainly  in  Rome,  but  remained  in  close  relationship  to  the 


286  ENGRAVING    IN    GERMANY 

art  of  his  native  land.  As  a  sympathetic  and  skilful  etcher 
of  Italian  landscape  scenery  Reinhardt  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place  in  his  period.  His  numerous  plates  belong  for 
the  most  part  to  the  early  period  of  his  residence  in 
Rome.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
etching  still  had  many  supporters  among  German  artists. 


Fig.  128.     Franz  Weirotter  :  Landscape. 

Johann  Christoph  Erhard  (1795 — 1822)  and  Johann  Adam 
Klein  (1792 — 1875)  still  maintained  the  traditions  of  the 
older  generation  at  a  time  when  new  methods  and  new 
ideas  were  gaining  ground  in  Germany,  and  etching  so 
declined  that  in  our  own  days  it  has  had  to  undergo,  as 
it  were,  a  fresh  discovery. 


IX 
ENGRAVING    IN    SPAIN 

PRIMITIVE  engravings  actually  in  existence  lead 
one  to  the  conclusion  that  the  art  of  engraving  was 
practised  in  Spain  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  centurs',  though 
perhaps  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  National  Library 
in  Madrid  possesses  a  modern  impression  from  an  old 
plate  with  scenes  of  the  lives  of  Christ  and  of  Eulalia,  the 
patron  saint  of  Barcelona.  It  is  a  roughly  executed 
engraving,  and  bears  in  the  under  margin  the  signature 
"  Fr.  Domenech  1488."  Fr.  may  be  read  as  a  contraction 
for  Frater,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  the  engraver  was  a 
Dominican  who  obtained  his  knowledge  of  the  art  in  Italy. 
In  the  Madrid  collection  are  also  some  other  evidences  of 
Spanish  fifteenth-century  engraving,  among  them  a  small 
folio  print  picturing  with  a  simple  and  primitive  treatment 
Charles,  Prince  of  Viana,  a  popular  saint  and  hero,  beneath 
a  Gothic  canopy,  with  two  Spanish  coats  of  arms  above. 
Even  more  awkward  and  almost  crude  in  style  are  a 
'  Wheel  of  Fortune  '  and  a  '  Tree  of  Life,'  w  hich  show  a 
distinct  relationship  to  an  engraving  by  the  German 
Master  of  the  Banderoles.  Distinctly  finer  in  drawing  and 
in  technique  are  three  playing-cards  in  the  Berlin  Cabinet 
somewhat  akin  to  the  work  of  the  better  Italian  masters 
of  this  period.  They  represent  the  King,  Queen  (fig.  129), 
and    Knight,    and,  as   a   mark   of  the   different   suits,   the 

2S7 


288  ENGRAVING    IN    SPAIN 

figures  bear  in  their  hands  round  shields  with  a  Spanish 
coat  of  arms  and  the  inscription  Valenzia. 


Fig.  129.     Spanish  Master,  fifteenth  century  :  Playing-card. 

These  primitive  examples  point  to  the  definite  existence 
of  engraving  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


JOSE   GARCIA    HIDALGO  289 

The  existing  fragments  can  represent  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  prints  originally  produced,  and  in  view  of  this  it 
is  the  more  remarkable  that  there  is  absolutely  no  trace 
of  engraving  in  Spain  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  is  only  towards  the  close  of  this  period  that 
single  engravers  of  title-pages  or  pictures  of  saints  begin 
to  appear,  such  as  Francisco  Hernandez  and  Pedro 
Roman.  The  seventeenth  century  is  somewhat  richer  in 
engraved  work.  We  meet  with  a  fair  number  of  names 
of  engravers  cropping  up  in  different  parts  of  Spain,  most 
of  them  hardly  to  be  ranked  as  artists,  but  rather  as 
mere  journeymen  engravers,  working  on  the  commercial 
production  of  titles  for  books  and  of  popular  representa- 
tions of  saints.  Besides  native  Spaniards  there  appear 
some  engravers  of  Netherlandish  or  German  origin,  such 
as  Cornelio  Boel,  working  at  Madrid  in  1616,  and  Juan 
Federico  Greuter,  a  member  of  a  Strasburg  family  of 
artists,  who  appears  at  Madrid  in    1654. 

The  high  achievement  of  Spanish  painting  in  the 
seventeenth  century  was  without  any  influence  on  en- 
graving. Unlike  the  artists  of  the  north,  Spanish  painters 
of  this  century  took  no  interest  in  engraving  and  etching, 
and  never  recognised  their  value  or  their  possibilities.  One 
is  inclined  to  doubt  the  genuineness  of  isolated  etchings, 
or  rather  experiments  in  etching,  attributed  to  the 
famous  artists  of  Spain,  such  as  the  etched  portrait  head 
of  Olivarez  ascribed  to  Velasquez,  the  '  Crucifixion  '  said 
to  be  by  Claudio  Coello,  and  the  various  prints  with  which 
Murillo  is  credited.  Better  authenticated  are  some  few 
etchings  by  artists  of  a  lower  rank,  such  as  those  in  the 
"  Principos  para  estudiar  el  arte  de  Pintura  "  ("  The  Art  of 
Drawing  and  Painting"),  1691,  by  Jose  Garcia  Hidalgo, 
who  was  born  in  1640,  and  worked  at  Valencia  and  Madrid. 

19 


290  ENGRAVING    IN    SPAIN 

It  was  not  till  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  engraving  and  etching  in  Spain  acquired  any  real 
importance.  Foremost  among  Spanish  engravers  of  this 
date  are  Manuel  Salvador  Carmona  (1730 — 1808),  who 
received  his  training  in  Paris,  and  established  a  small 
school  of  engraving  at  Madrid  ;  and  Pasqual  Pedro  Moles 
(1741  — 1797),  who  worked  in  Barcelona.  Next  in  im- 
portance comes  Carmona's  pupil,  Bias  Amcttler,  and  after 
him  Francisco  Muntaner,  Fernando  Selma,  Bartolome 
Vasquez,  and  Vincente  Mariani,  all  working  together 
during  the  second  half  of  the  century.  Thomas  Lopez 
Enguidanos  (born  in  1773)  produced  some  effective  work 
in  Beauvarlet's  brilliant  style.  Noteworthy  as  an  etcher 
is  Ramon  Bayeu  y  Subias  (Saragossa,  1746  — 1796),  whose 
work  shows  the  influence  of  Rafael  Mengs  and  his  school. 
The  most  famous,  however,  of  all  the  native  and  foreign 
painters  working  in  Spain  during  the  eighteenth  century 
is  Francisco  Jose  de  Goya  y  Lucientes  (born  in  1746,  died 
at  Bordeaux  in  1828).  His  etchings  form  by  far  the  most 
important  part  of  his  work,  and  he  may  have  been 
directed  to  the  process  by  his  contemporary  Subias.  In 
some  spirited  reproductions  of  paintings  by  the  old 
masters  of  Spain  ('  Bacchus  and  his  Companions,'  portraits 
of  Spanish  rulers  on  horseback,  '  Las  Meninas,'  after 
Velasquez,  etc.)  he  appears  to  have  based  his  style  on  that 
of  Tiepolo.  At  a  later  period  his  technique  became  more 
individual  and  his  execution  nervous  and  hasty,  while  he 
frequently  employed  aquatint  to  gain  additional  strength. 
His  prints,  repulsive  and  fascinating,  leave  an  indelible 
impression  on  the  mind  of  every  one  who  beholds  them^ 
whether  the  artist  depicts  gruesome  incidents  with  awful 
realism,  or  gives  free  play  to  his  fantastic  imagination. 
Goya  was  the  inventor  of  a  branch  of  art  peculiarly  his 


FRANCISCO   GOYA 


291 


Fig.  130.     Francisco  Goya  :  From  the  series  of  'Caprices." 


own,    which    may    be  described    as    satire   carried    to   the 
utmost  verge  of  cruelty,  brutah'ty,  and  ugliness.     His  series 


292  ENGRAVING    IN    SPAIN 

of  plates  that  appeared  under  the  titles  of  '  Caprices '  and 
'  Proverbs  '  lead  one  amid  mysterious  and  allegoric  scenes 
and  through  the  wildest  errors  and  the  deepest  pathos 
of  human  life. 

The  miseries  of  war  have  never  been  pictured  so  vividly 
by  Callot,  or  any  other  artist,  as  by  Goya  in  his  '  Disasters 
of  War.'  The  series  was  inspired  by  the  French  invasion 
of  Spain,  and  was  so  pregnant  with  horror  that  it  was 
not  till  long  after  Goya's  death  that  any  one  ventured  to 
give  it  open  publication. 


X 
COLOUR    PRINTS 

PRINTING  in  colours  from  engraved  copper  plates,  in 
line,  etching,  stipple,  or  any  other  method,  may  be 
accomplished  in  two  different  ways.  A  print  in  colours 
may  be  produced  by  means  of  successive  superimposed 
printings  from  several  copper  plates,  or  by  a  single 
printing  from  one  plate. 

The  discoverer  of  the  method  of  colour-printing  from 
several  plates  was  Jacob  Christoph  Le  Blon,  born  in  1667 
at  Frankfort.  Originally  a  miniature  painter  and  engraver, 
Le  Blon  began  to  busy  himself  in  Amsterdam  about  1710 
with  the  problem  of  printing  in  colours.  His  aim  was  to 
reproduce  by  engraving  the  effect  of  oil-painting.  We 
know  very  little  of  his  career  or  of  the  periods  at  which 
his  existing  works  were  produced.  In  the  production 
of  his  colour  prints  Le  Blon  employed  from  three  to  five 
plates,  which  he  executed  as  a  rule  in  mezzotint,  but  some- 
times in  engraving  or  etching,  and  frequently  in  a  combi- 
nation of  various  kinds  of  technique.  The  different  plates 
used  for  each  print  were  of  exactly  equal  size.  On  the 
first  plate  everything  was  engraved  that  in  the  finished 
picture  was  intended  to  give  a  yellow  colour  or  half-tones 
containing  yellow,  on  the  second  plate  those  parts  which 
were  to  appear  blue,  and  on  the  third  plate  the  reds.  Green 
was  produced  by  superprinting  blue  upon  yellow  ;  brown 

293 


294  COLOUR    PRINTS 

by  the  combination  of  red  and  yellow,  and  so  on.  The 
simultaneous  employment  of  these  colours  on  white  paper 
in  the  manner  indicated  permits  the  reproduction,  at  any 
rate  in  theory,  of  all  the  colour  tones  that  appear  in 
nature  ;  but  in  practice  Le  Blon  and  his  immediate  followers 
were  obliged  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  a  black  or  deep- 
brown  plate  for  their  deepest  tones.  From  Amsterdam 
Le  Blon  went  to  London,  where  he  applied  his  discovery 
to  anatomical  illustrations  etc.,  with  good  results.  He 
then  travelled  to  Paris,  received  there  the  grant  of  a  royal 
patent  in  1740,  but  died  in  the  following  year.  Le  Blon's 
work  is  extremely  uneven.  His  colouring  is  remarkably 
pale,  and  where  he  worked  on  his  plates  with  etching- 
needle  or  burin,  as  in  the  life-size  half-length  portrait  of 
Cardinal  Fleury,  there  is  an  entire  lack  of  gradation  of 
tone.  His  colour  prints,  which  depend  on  a  basis  of 
mezzotint,  produce  a  stronger  and  better  result.  Foremost 
among  the  prints  of  this  kind  is  his  portrait  of  George  H, 
without  doubt  executed  in  London,  where  Le  Blon  in 
making  his  plates  could  obtain  the  help  of  the  distin- 
guished mezzotinters  there  established.  In  the  portrait  of 
George  II  the  effect  of  a  painting  in  rich  luminous 
colouring  is  astonishingly  well  obtained,  and  this  remark- 
able work  remains  unsurpassed  of  its  kind  as  a  colour 
print  to  the  present  day.  Separate  portions,  like  the 
peruque,  are  worked  with  the  graver.  Perhaps  the  best 
impression  of  this  print  is  that  preserved  in  the  Berlin 
Museum.  The  life-size  head  and  shoulders  of  Louis  XV, 
probably  executed  in  Paris,  does  not  exactly  fail  in  artistic 
merit,  but  the  colouring  is  pale  and  lacking  in  harmony. 
Le  Blon  fell  into  the  other  extreme  in  his  reproductions 
of  paintings  by  old  masters.  In  these  the  shadows 
almost   always   appear   too   heavy,   and   disturb   the   full 


COLOURED    MEZZOTINT  295 

harmony  of  the  effect.  Moreover,  these  larger  plates  are 
frequently  spoiled  by  a  coat  of  varnish,  intended  to  make 
them  resemble  oil-paintings  (e._^.  Rubens'  '  Children,' 
Correggio's  '  Angel,'  etc.).  In  spite  of  all  the  zeal  with 
which  Le  Rlon  pursued  his  ideas,  he  appears  to  have 
obtained  successful  results  only  in  exceptional  cases,  and 
in  reality  never  to  have  passed  beyond  the  stage  of 
experiment.  No  better  success  was  obtained  by  his  pupil 
Jacques  Gautier  Dagoty  (1717 — 1/86),  who  was  inferior  to 
Le  Blon  as  an  artist,  and  whose  works  are  always  heav\' 
and  unsatisfactory.  Dagoty  also  reproduced  the  paintings 
of  old  masters.  His  son,  Edouard  Gautier  Dagoty,  had  to 
struggle  against  a  similar  lack  of  skill  amid  similar 
difficulties  ;  a  good  example  of  his  colour-printing  is  his 
plate  after  Raphael's  '  Madonna  della  Sedia.'  Portraits  by 
the  two  Dagotys  never  seemed  to  pass  beyond  the  initial 
stages  of  the  work,  and  always  appear  experimental.  In 
fact,  the  great  stumbling-block  to  all  the  French  artists, 
Le  Blon  included,  who  practised  colour-printing  with  a 
basis  of  mezzotint,  was  that  they  never  had  any  real  grasp 
of  the  art  of  mezzotint,  and  that  in  Paris  neither  artists 
nor  printers  could  be  found  who  had  obtained  an\-  mastery 
of  the  art.  The  tendency  of  the  mezzotint  plate  to  fail 
beneath  the  wear  and  tear  of  printing  was  another  notable 
hindrance  to  the  development  of  this  branch  of  colour- 
printing. 

The  appearance  of  the  aquatint  process  made  it  possible 
to  use  plates  which  possessed  every  quality  essential  for 
printing  in  colour.  The  inventor  of  aquatint  was  the 
painter  Jean  Baptiste  Le  Prince(i733 — 1781),  who  perhaps 
stumbled  originally  on  the  process  by  mere  accident,  and 
employed  it  in  the  facsimile  reproduction  of  some  wash- 
drawings  made  by  him  during  a  journey  in  Russia.     Other 


296  COLOUR   PRINTS 

artists  before  Le  Prince  had  sought,  though  with  little 
success,  some  means  of  rendering  on  copper  the  effect  of 
drawings  in  bistre  or  sepia.  The  first  successful  application 
of  Le  Prince's  discovery  to  colour-printing  was  made  by 
Francois  Janinet  (1752 — 1813).  Janinet  styles  himself,  on 
an  otherwise  unimportant  plate,  the  discoverer  of  a  new 
process — "  Grave  a  I'imitation  du  lavis  en  couleur  par 
F.  Janinet,  le  seul  qui  ait  trouve  cette  maniere." 

In  colour-printing  Janinet  displayed  a  many-sided  and 
resourceful  talent.  He  had  the  knack  of  giving  full  value 
to  the  breadth  and  hastiness  of  a  water-colour  sketch, 
such  as  the  landscapes  of  Hubert  Robert,  as  well  as  to  the 
smooth  polish  and  enamel-like  finish  typical  of  the  popular 
miniatures  of  the  time,  as  in  his  portrait  of  Dugazon  the 
actress.  At  the  same  time  Janinet's  colour  prints  are 
never  slavish  imitations  of  original  paintings,  like  some 
modern  chromo-lithographs,  but  are  always  artistic  trans- 
lations adapted  with  sympathy  to  the  technical  means  at 
his  hand.  The  execution,  indeed,  does  not  always  show 
equal  care,  but  much  of  his  work  may  have  been  hastily 
done  to  meet  market  demands.  The  highest  place  in 
Janinet's  work  is  taken  by  his  pictures  of  the  manners  and 
morals  of  his  time.  These  are  nearly  always  remarkably 
successful  in  drawing  and  in  colour  effect  as  well  ;  but  in 
colour-printing,  as  in  all  engraving,  it  is  only  the  best  and 
most  successful  prints  that  show  the  real  merit  of  the  work. 
A  brilliant  example  of  Janinet's  work  is  his  portrait  of 
Marie  Antoinette  in  a  rich  border  printed  in  gold  and 
colour.  Janinet  also  reproduced  a  series  of  water-colour 
drawings  by  Adriaen  Ostade,  rendering  the  colour-scheme 
of  the  originals  with  great  fidelity  and  charm. 

Janinet's  pupil,  Charles  Melchior  Descourtis  (1753 — 
1820),  is    somewhat    inferior    to   his   master    in    power   of 


LOUIS   PHILIBERT    DEBUCOURT         297 

draughtsmanship,  but  his  best  works  show  great  tenderness 
and  delicacy  of  colour.  Descourtis'  '  Village  Festival  '  and 
'Village  Fair'  have  quite  the  effect  of  finely  finished 
water-colour  drawings. 

Louis  Philibert  Debucourt  (1755  — 1832)  is  the  greatest 
master  of  colour-printing.  He  not  only  obtains  the 
greatest  perfection  of  technique,  but  his  work  has  a 
particular  value  in  that  he  uses  his  own  original  com- 
positions designed  from  the  first  with  a  view  to  their 
effect  as  colour  prints.  His  prints,  on  this  account,  possess 
a  higher  measure  of  individual  merit,  with  greater  unity 
of  design  and  conception,  than  those  of  his  fellows. 
During  Debucourt's  best  period,  lasting  only  till  about  1 800, 
his  drawing  is  full  of  spirit,  and  his  plates  render  with  verve 
and  humour  the  outdoor  appearance  of  the  Paris  bcaii  inonde 
at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  '  Promenade 
in  the  Gallery  of  the  Palais  Royal '  is  rightly  considered 
Debucourt's  greatest  work.  It  gives  an  unsurpassed  and 
convincing  picture  of  the  gaiety  and  the  fashionable 
costumes  of  the  high  society,  or  what  considered  itself 
the  high  society,  of  the  time,  with  possibly  less  suggestion 
of  caricature  than  at  the  first  glance  one  is  inclined  to 
assume.  While  this  print  shows  a  bright  interior  with  a 
soft  diffused  light,  its  almost  equally  remarkable  com- 
panion piece,  the  '  Public  Promenade,'  reveals  no  less 
resource  in  rendering  the  effect  of  bright  sunlight  glitter- 
ing beneath  an  open  roof  of  foliage.  Debucourt's  mastery 
of  the  complicated  technique  of  colour-printing  is  specially 
displayed  in  the  absolute  freedom  with  which  he  produces 
his  colour  effects  ;  almost  every  one  of  his  plates  shows 
a  fresh  system  of  colour,  always  eminently  suitable  and 
always  harmonious.  Among  his  best  prints,  besides  those 
mentioned,  are  '  The  Minuet  of  the  New  Bride,'  '  The  New 


298  COLOUR    PRINTS 

Year's  Wish,'  '  The  Grandfather's  Birthday,'  a  portrait  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  etc. 

Pierre  M.  Alix  (^1762  — 18 17)  was  a  diligent  and  usually 
capable  craftsman,  but  an  inferior  artist  ;  he  produced  an 
immense  amount  of  work,  mainly  portraits  of  contempo- 
rary personages. 

All  the  details  of  the  actual  colour-printing  processes 
employed  by  the  artists  of  this  period  are  unknown,  and 
cannot  always  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  certainty 
from  the  prints  still  in  existence.  Many  of  the  artifices 
employed  in  printing  with  several  colours  remained 
secrets  of  the  craft,  and  disappeared  into  oblivion  as  the 
art  vanished  after  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  unsuccessful  trial  proofs,  which  must  doubtless  have 
been  very  numerous  in  this  process,  appear  to  have  been 
always  destroyed  ;  on  the  other  hand,  successful  examples 
were  often  helped  out  by  the  addition  here  and  there  of 
touches  of  colour  applied  by  hand  with  extraordinary 
cunning  and  often  scarcely  discoverable. 

Count  Caylus  (1692 — 1765),  a  many-sided  amateur  and 
patron  of  art,  had  helped  by  means  of  his  extensive 
publications  to  rouse  an  interest  in  the  drawings  of  the 
old  masters.  Engravers  were  eager  to  perfect  some 
method  of  producing  imitations  of  such  works  of  art, 
for  which  the  various  newly  discovered  processes  and  the 
art  of  colour-printing  were  peculiarly  adapted.  The 
reproduction  of  drawings  and  sketches  by  old  and  modern 
masters  formed  a  recognised  province  for  artistic  energy, 
and  collectors  were  inspired  with  a  keen  desire  for  such 
imitations.  In  rendering  the  character  of  drawings  in 
red  chalk  or  charcoal,  and  wash-drawings  in  Indian  ink 
or  sepia,  various  combinations  of  etching,  aquatint, 
stipple,  and  the  crayon  manner  were  employed  to  give  the 


JEAN    CHARLES    FRAXgOIS 


299 


required  effect.  Occasionally  wood  blocks  were  also  used 
in  the  production  of  broad  surface  tints  and  to  ^^ive  a  tone 
to  the  paper.  The  advent  of  the  crayon  manner  was 
particularly  efficacious  in  smoothing  the  way  for  the 
reproduction  of  drawings.  Its  inventor  was  Jean  Charles 
Francois  (born  at  Xanc)-  1717,  died  at  Paris  1769^.  Me 
conceived  his 
first  idea  for  the 
process  while 
living  in  great 
poverty  at  Dijon, 
•and  brought  it 
to  perfection  in 
Paris.  In  re- 
ceipt of  an 
annual  pension 
from  the  king, 
he  produced  a 
series  of  plates 
after  the  old 
masters,  repro- 
ductions that  for 
the  time  were 
wonderfully  true 
to  the  originals, 
and  were  an  ad- 
mirable attempt 

to  render  the  character  of  chalk  drawings.  At  the  same 
time  the  new  process  did  not  altogether  fulfil  the  high 
expectations  which  it  had  inspired,  and  this  fact  no  doubt 
contributed  to  Francois'  early  death.  Francois  was  no 
mean  artist,  and  possessed  extraordinary  genius  for  the 
technical  side  of  engraving.     One  of  his  plates  is  a  portrait, 


JlcHI  Lli.u  li  ^  1  I  .im 
J.  F.  Dciiis  (detail). 


300  COLOUR    PRINTS 

which  shows  almost  every  possible  method  of  treating  the 
plate — line-engraving,  aquatint,  and  the  crayon  manner — 
all  of  them  wrought  into  such  harmony  that  at  first  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  distinguish  the  different  technical 
methods  in  separate  parts  of  the  plate, 

A  genius  akin  to  his  was  possessed  by  Louis  Bonnet^ 
who  worked  in  Paris,  and  for  a  time  at  St.  Petersburg. 
He  was  skilled  not  only  in  reproducing  simple  drawings 
done  in  two  colours  of  chalk,  but  he  could  render  a  full 
scheme  of  pastel  colouring  with  such  illusion  that  one 
almost  seems  to  see  in  his  print  the  actual  grain  and 
texture  of  the  pastel.  Bonnet  was  particularly  famous  as 
the  discoverer  of  a  white  colour  material  which  he  applied 
to  the  plate  in  a  final  printing,  obtaining  by  this  means 
much  more  favourable  results  than  by  the  ordinary 
conventional  method  of  using  the  untouched  surface  of  the 
paper  to  indicate  the  high  lights.  Since  his  day  no  one 
has  been  able  to  print  satisfactorily  with  pure  white,  and 
even  Bonnet  could  not  avoid  retouching  with  the  brush. 
Bonnet's  work  amounts  to  about  five  hundred  and  sixty 
prints,  among  them  a  large  number  of  studies  of  heads 
and  figures  after  Boucher  and  other  masters,  some  of  them 
with  a  rich  framework  printed  in  gold,  making  them  rather 
an  article  of  commerce  than  a  work  of  art. 

Bonnet  was  followed  by  Gilles  Demarteau  (1729 — 1776),. 
also  working  in  Paris.  He  employed  the  crayon  manner 
with  considerable  skill  in  his  reproductions  of  slight 
sketches  by  Boucher,  Huet  and  Eisen. 

Cornelis  Ploos  van  Amstel  (1726 — 1798)  was  engaged 
at  Amsterdam  in  preparing  and  publishing  repro- 
ductions of  drawings  by  the  old  Dutch  masters,  but  his 
work  was  that  of  a  leisured  amateur,  intended  more  to 
satisfy  his  artistic  instincts  than  as  a  source  of  profit.     In 


REPRODUCTIONS   OF   DRAWINGS        301 

printing  he  frequently  used  a  series  of  copper  plates,  and 
had  all  kinds  of  devices  at  his  command.  His  facsimiles, 
published  in  1765,  show  by  far  the  most  perfect  result 
obtained  by  the  technical  processes  known  at  his  time. 
Van  Amstel's  plates  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  pupil 
and  relation.  Christian  Josi,  who  published  in  London  a 
"Collection  d'Imitations  de  Dessins  d'apres  les  principaux 
Maitres  Hollandais  et  Flamards,  commencee  par  C.  Ploos 
van  Amstel,  continuee  et  portee  au  nombre  de  cent 
morceaux  '  (18 19). 

The  interest  in  drawings  and  prints  b>*  the  old  masters 
caused  a  demand  in  London  for  several  handsome  volumes, 
like  this  by  Josi,  with  reproductions  in  various  processes 
of  engraving  and  colour-printing.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  "  Collection  of  Prints  in  Imitation  of  Draw- 
ings "  (1778),  with  plates  by  Bartolozzi,  Ryland,  S.  Watts, 
and  others.  Another  noteworthy  book  of  this  class  is  the 
"  Imitations  of  Original  Drawings  by  Hans  Holbein," 
published  in  1792,  with  eighty-four  plates  in  colour,  nearly 
all  of  them  by  Bartolozzi.  Other  engravers  who  worked 
on  colour  reproductions  of  this  type  were  C.  M.  Metz, 
A.  Cardon,  P.  W.  Tomkins,  L.  Schiavonetti,  and  F.  C.  Lewis. 

A  prominent  colour-printer  in  Germany  was  Johann 
Theophilus  Prestel  (1739 — 1808),  who  worked  in  con- 
junction with  his  wife  and  his  daughter,  both  named 
Catharina.  In  response  to  the  growing  appreciation  of 
art,  they  made  it  their  object  to  render  the  drawings  of 
the  old  masters  of  all  schools  readily  accessible  in  good 
reproductions.  The  facsimiles  published  by  the  Prestel 
family  of  the  Praun  Collection  at  Nuremberg  (1778 — 1780) 
and  of  other  smaller  collections  naturally  lose  something 
of  the  spirit  of  the  original  drawings,  but  are  none  the 
less  excellent  and  charming  reproductions. 


302  COLOUR   PRINTS 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  process 
of  producing  colour  prints  by  means  of  one  printing  from 
a  single  plate  was  brought  to  great  perfection.  The 
process  has  little  in  common  with  the  method  of  colour- 
printing  with  several  plates.  The  ordinary  means  of 
printing  a  single  plate  in  black  ink  is  to  cover  with  ink 
the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  ;  but  to  print  in  colours 
from  a  single  plate,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  separate 
colours  to  the  different  portions  of  the  engraving,  so  as 
to  obtain  exactly  the  required  result  in  the  print ;  trees 
must  be  inked  with  a  green  colour,  the  earth  with  a 
brown,  faces  with  a  flesh  colour,  and  so  on.  This  practi- 
cally amounts  to  painting  the  copper  plate.  Each  colour 
is  applied  with  a  small  pad  to  its  proper  portion  of  the 
plate,  and  the  superfluous  colour  is  wiped  from  the  smooth 
surface  just  as  in  ordinary  printing  with  black  ink.  The 
plate  is  then  printed  in  the  usual  manner.  Any  plate 
one  wishes  may  be  printed  in  colour  by  this  means, 
whether  it  be  worked  in  mezzotint,  line-engraving,  or  any 
other  process.  Since  all  the  colouring  is  done  on  the 
plate  itself  the  success  of  a  colour  print  depends  entirely 
on  care  and  skill  in  applying  the  colour  and  in  printing. 
Moreover,  since  only  one  layer  of  colour  can  be  applied 
to  the  paper,  it  is  only  possible  to  give  the  effect  of 
separate  local  colours  without  the  depth  of  tone  that  can 
be  produced  by  superimposing  several  tints,  as  is  the 
case  in  printing  with  several  plates,  or  even  with  successive 
printings  from  a  single  plate.  In  spite  of  the  difficulties 
and  limitations  of  the  process,  some  remarkably  pleasing 
work  in  colour-printing  with  one  plate  was  done  by  the 
engravers  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  but  right  to  add  that  much  inferior  and  poor  work 
was  also  produced. 


COLOURED    STIPPLE  305 

Hercules  Seghers  (sec  p.  167)  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
the  first  to  conceive  the  idea  of  printing  in  colours  from  a 
copper  plate.  By  using  blue,  brown,  and  green  inks,  and 
by  printing  in  various  successive  light  tones,  he  gave  his 
landscape  etchings  the  appearance  of  sketches  in  colour. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  colour-printing 
was  also  used  with  some  success  by  Peter  Schenk,  an 
engraver  and  publisher  (born  at  Eberfeld  1645,  w^orked  at 
Amsterdam,  died  17 15?).  He  produced  a  series  of  line- 
engravings  and  mezzotints,  flower  and  figure  pieces, 
landscapes,  birds,  etc.,  printed  in  somewhat  hard,  yet  not 
unpleasing  schemes  of  colour,  with  considerable  technical 
facility. 

While  colour-printing  with  several  plates  was  practised 
exclusively  in  Paris,  single-plate  colour-printing  gained 
extraordinary  popularity  in  England  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  its  mainstay  being  the  stipple 
method  introduced  by  Ryland.  By  a  careful  application 
of  colour  stipple  engravings  will  yield  a  charming  effect 
with  delightfully  soft  and  broken  tints.  Ryland  and 
Bartolozzi  caused  a  revolution  in  the  print  trade  and 
created  an  unequalled  market  for  colour  prints.  Beautiful 
prints  in  colour  were  produced  not  only  from  their  plates, 
but  from  those  of  their  followers,  T.  Burke,  T.  Cheesman, 
C.  Knight,  P.  W.  Tomkins,  W.  Dickinson,  W.  Nutter,  etc. 
At  the  same  time  the  market  was  flooded  with  popular 
prints  more  or  less  extensively  touched  up  with  water- 
colours  to  hide  their  deficiencies.  E\en  in  the  best  colour 
prints,  however,  touches  of  water-colour  were  used  to 
heighten  and  indicate  details  that  could  not  easily  be 
rendered  by  means  of  the  copper  plate.  A  noteworthy 
feature  in  the  history  of  colour-printing  in  England  is  the 
large    number    of    genre,    hunting,    and    sporting   scenes. 


304  COLOUR   PRINTS 

Coloured  mezzotints  after  Morland  by  J.  R.  Smith,  W. 
Ward  and  others  have  always  been  deservedly  popular, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
extensively  exported  to  the  Continent. 

In  Germany  colour-printing  was  practised  about  this 
time  to  a  less  extent  than  in  England,  but  some  excellent 
results  were  produced  that  show  great  technical  merit. 
One  may  note  the  coloured  mezzotints  of  Johann  Peter 
Pichler,  of  Vienna,  and  the  coloured  stipple  engravings 
of  Heinrich  Sintzenich  and  Daniel  Berger  of  Berlin.  The 
advent  of  lithography  crushed  engraving  almost  out  of 
existence,  and  colour-printing  from  copper  plates  became 
a  lost  art. 


INDEX 


*  An  asterisk  indicates  that  the  artist's  work  is  illustrated. 


I'AGE 

A 

Abacco,  Marii)  dell' 

1 06 

Ak^-n,  Jan  van 

•63 

Albani,  Francesco    . 

231 

Alberti,  Cherubino  . 

229 

*Aldegrever,  Heinrich 

122 

Alix,  Pierre-Michel . 

298 

Allen,  J.  C.      . 

248 

Almanachs 

207 

Almeloven,  Jan 

163 

*AUdorrer,  Albrecht 

"3 

Altobello  da  JMelone 

83 

Ambling,  Gustav 

268 

Amettler,  Bias 

290 

*  Amman,  Jost 

131 

Amstel,  Cornelius  Ploos  van 

300 

Anderloni,  Pietro 

240 

Andrea,  Zoan  . 

80 

Aquatint,  process  of 

8 

Aubert,  Michel 

210 

Audran,  Benoit 

209  • 

Audran,  Gerard 

200 

Aveline,  Pierre 

209 

Backhuysen,  Ludolf 
Baillie,  William 
Baldini,  Baccio 
Balechou,  Jean-Joseph 
*Barbari,  Jacopo  de' 
P>arlacchi,  Thomas   . 
*Barocci,  Federigo  . 
*Bartolozzi,  Francesco 

245>  246, 
ISartsch,  Adam 
Baur,  Johann  Wilhelm 
*Bause,  Johann  Friedrich 
Bayeu  y  Subias,  Ramon    . 
Beatrizet,  Nicola 


182 

245 

71 

214 

84 
106 
226 

303 
274 
265 

274 
290 
106 


I'AGE 

Beauvarlet,  Jacques-P'irmin 

217 

Beckett,  Isaac 

254 

Beeresteyn,  C.  van  . 

165 

Bega,  Cornel  is  Pietersz     . 

182 

*Beham,  Barthel 

119 

*Beham,  Hans  Sebald 

116 

Beich,  Joachim  Franz 

266 

Bella,  Stefano  della  . 

19S 

Belotto,  Bernardo     . 

235 

Berain,  Jean     . 

208 

*Berchem,  Nicolaes 

185 

Berger,  Daniel          .         .      28 

3>  304 

Bervic,  Jean-Guillaume     . 

216 

Biak,  Jacob 

124 

Biscaino,  Bartolommeo     . 

232 

Blasco  (Francisco  Hernandez) 

289 

Bleecker,  Gerrit 

166 

Blesendorf,  Samuel 

26S 

Bloemaert,  Aljraham 

145 

Bloemaert,  Cornells 

145 

Blocteling,  Abraham         .      25 

2,  254 

Bluck,  J. 

248 

*Bocholt,    Franz    von    (Masle 

F.  V.  B.)      . 

41 

Boel,  Cornelio 

289 

Boel,  Pieter      . 

161 

*Boissieu,  Jean-Jacques     . 

219 

Bol,  Ferdinand 

17S 

Bol,  Hans 

156 

Bolswert,  Boetius  a  . 

148 

*Bols\vert,  Schelte  a 

14S 

Bonasone,  Giulio 

105 

Bonnet,  Louis  . 

300 

Bosse,  Abraham 

197 

Both,  Andries  . 

187 

*Both,  Jan 

187 

Botticelli,  Sandro 

71 

Boucher,  Francois    .         .21 

I,  218 

Boucher-Desnoyers,  Augusta 

217 

Bouchorst,  Jan 

156 

Bourdon,  Sebaslien  . 

1 98 

Boyvin,  Rene  . 

194 

305 


20 


\o6 


INDEX 


Bramante 

Bramer,  Leonard 

Breenberch,  Bartholomeus 

Brentel,  Fiiedrich    . 

Breughel,  Jan  . 

Brescia,  Giovanni  Antonio 

Bril,  Paulus 

Bronkhorst,  Jan  Gerritsz 

Brosamer,  Hans 

Browne,  John  . 

Brun,  Franz 

Bruyn,  Nicolas  de    . 

Bry,  Theodor  de 

*Burin 

Burke,  Thomas 

Burnisher 

Burr 

Busch,  Georg  Paul   . 


da 


PAGE 

83 
166 
187 
262 
160 

82 

187 
124 

132 

142 

133 
I 


*Callot,  Jacques 

195 

Campagnola,  Domenico    . 

88 

*Campagnola,  Giulio 

85 

*Canale,  Antcnio,  called  Cana- 

letto      

235 

Canuti,  Maria  .          .          .          . 

231 

Caraglio,  Giovanni  Jacopo 

105 

Cavdon,  Antoine 

3=1 

Carlevariis,  Luca 

235 

Carmona,  Manuel  Salvador 

290 

*Carracci,  Agostino 

22S 

Carracci,  Annibale   . 

229 

Cars,  Laurent  . 

209 

Castiglione,  Giov.  Benedetto 

232 

Cavedone,  Giacomo 

231 

Caylus,  Count .          .          .21 

I.  29S 

Cecill,  Thomas 

242 

Cesare  da  Sesto 

83 

*Cesena,  Peregrino  da 

94 

Chalcographie  du  Louvre 

208 

Chalk  manner  . 

9 

Cheesman,  Thomas . 

303 

*Chodowiecki,  Daniel 

278 

Chodowiecki,  Gottfried    . 

.     282 

Chodowiecki.  Wilhelm 

.     282 

Choffard,  Pierre-Philippe 

•     225 

Claesz,  Allaert 

.     138 

Cochin,     Charles-Nicolas,     th 

elder     .... 

.     210 

Cock,  Ilieronymus    . 

.     138 

Cockson,  Thomas 

•     241 

Coello,  Claud  io 

.     289 

Cole,  Humphrey 

.     241 

Collaert,  Adriaen 

Colour  Prints  . 

Cooke,  George 

Cooke,  William  Bernard  . 

Corneille,  Claude 

Cort,  Cornells . 

*Cranach,  Lucas,  the  elder 

Crayon  manner 

Cuyp,  Aelbert 

Custos,  Dominicus  . 


Dabber    .... 

Daret,  Pierre   . 

Dagoty,  Edouard-Gautier 

Uagoty,  Jacques-Gautier  . 

Daniell,  Thomas 

Daniell,  William 

Daulle,  Jean     . 

Dawe,  George . 

Dean,  John 

Debucourt,  Louis-Philibert 

Dei,  Matteo 

Delaram,  Francis 

*Delaune,  Etienne    . 

Delff,  Willem  Jacobsz 

Demarteau,  Gilles    . 

Denon,  Dominique-Vivant 

Dente,  Marco,  da  Ravenna 

Descourtis,  Charles-Melchior 

Dickinson,  William  .      256 

Dietrich,      Christian      Wilhelm 

Ernst    .... 
Dietterlein,  Wendelin 
Dillis,  Johann  Georg 
Dixon,  John     . 
Does,  Anton  van  der 
Does,  Jacob  van  der 
Domenech 
Domenichino    (Domenico 

Zampieri) 
Dorigny,  Michel 
Drevet,  Claude 
*Drevet,  Pierre 
Drevet,  Pierre-Imbert 
Dry-point  needle 
Ducerceau,  Jacques  Androuet 
Ducq,  Jan  le    . 
*Durer,  Albrecht      .         .        50, 
Dughet,  Caspar 
Dughet  (Publisher) 
Dujardin,  Karel 
Dunkarton,  Robert  .         .      257 


INDEX 


307 


Duplessi-Iiertaux,  Jean 
*Dusart,  Cornelis 
Duvet,  Jean 


I'AGE 

.     219 

182,  253 

.     190 


Earlom,  RicharJ       .         .      247, 

Ebelmann 

*Echnppe 

Eck,  Veit 

*Eclelinck,  Gerard    . 

Eckhout,  Geibrandt  van  den 

EistTn,  Charles 

Elsheimer,  Adam 

Elstracke,  Kenold     . 

Eliz,  Friedrich 

Engraving 

Enguidanos,  Thomas  Lopez 

Erhard,  Johann  Christoph 

Etching-ground 

Etching-needle 

Etching,  process  of  . 

*Everdingen,  AUaert  van 


257 
133 
9 
133 
202 
180 
224 
265 
241 

253 

I,  6 

290 

2S6 

4 

4 

3 

163 


Eaber,  John      .         .         .         . 

256 

Faithorne,  William  . 

242 

P'alk,  Jeremias 

261 

Fantuzzi.  Antonio     . 

194 

Fedde>,  Petrus,  von  Ilarlingen 

156 

Fenitzer,  Georg 

253 

Fenitzer,  Michael     . 

253 

Ficquet,  Etienne 

217 

Finden,  E.        .         .         .         . 

248 

Finiguerra,  Maso 

68,  92 

Flipart,  Jean-Jacques 

211 

Floris,  Frans (Frans de  Vriendt^ 

156 

Fokke,  Simon  . 

155 

Folo,  Giovanni 

2.0 

Fontainebleau,  School  of. 

193 

Fontana,  Giovanni  Battista 

226 

F'ontana,  Giulio 

226 

*Fragonard,  Jean  Honore 

218 

Francia,  Francesco  . 

93 

Francia,  Jacopo 

102 

Francois,  Jean-Charles     . 

299 

Frank,  Hans  Ulrich 

265 

Fiirstcnberg,    Theodor    Caspa 

von       .... 

250 

Fyt,  Jan  .... 

.     161 

Galle,  Cornelis          .         .  .146 

Galle,  Philipp .         .         .  .139 

Gandolfi,  Marco        .         .  .     240 

Gaucher,  Charles-Etienne  .     226 

Geddes,  Andrew  .  .  .  245 
*Gellce,    Claude    (Claude 

Lorrain)        .         .  -197 

Gemini,  Thomas       .         .  .     241 

Genoels,  Abraham    .          .  .      1S9 

Gessner,  Salomon     .         .  .278 

Ghendt,  Emanuel  de         .  .     224 

Gheyn,  Jacob  de       .         .  .144 

*Ghisi,  Giorgio         .          .  .      107 

Gillot,  Claude  .  .  .223 
Glauber.  Jan  ....  189 
Glockenton,     Alhert      (Master 

^(5)  .  .  .  -48 
*Goltzius,Hendrick  .  .      142 

Goodall,  Edward  .  .  .  248 
Gossart,  Jan,  called  Mabuse  .  138 
Goudt,  Ilendrick      .  .  -152 

Gourmond,  Jean  (Master  J.  G.)  192 
*Goya   y   Lucientes,  Francisco 

Jose  de  ....     290 

Goyen,  Ian  van  .  .  .162 
Graf,  Urs  .  .  .  .112 

Grateloup,  Jean-Baptiste  .  .  217 
Gravelot,  Hubert-Fran9ois  .  224 
Graver     .....  i 

Grebber,  Pieter  de  .  .         .      iSo 

Green,  \'alentine  .  .  .  256 
Greuter,  [uan  Federico  .  .  289 
Greuter.  Matthias  .  .  .  262 
Grimaldi,  Francesco  .         .     231 

Guckeisen  .  .  .  '133 
Guercino    (Giov.     F'rancesco 

Barbieri)  ....  231 
Guttenberg,  C.  .         .         .221 

Guttenberg,  H.         .         .         .221 


H 

Haas,  Georg    .... 
Haeften,  Nicolaus  van 
Haid,  Johann  Elias . 
Haid,  Johann  Gottfried     . 
Hainzelmann,  Elias 
Hainzelmann,  Johann 
Hammer,     Wolfgang     (Master 

W  A    H)     .       .       . 

Havell,  Daniel 


182 
253 
253 
268 
268 


49 
24S 


\oS 


INDEX 


flavull,  Robert 
Hcnrlquel-Dupont,  Louis 
Hernandez,  Francisco  (Blasco) 
Heusch,  Willem  de 
Hidalgo,  Jose  Garcia 
Hire,  Laurent  de  la 
*Hirschvogel,  Augustin 

*  Hogarth,  William  . 
Hcjgenberg,  Franz    . 
Hogenberg,  Remigius 
Hole,  William 

*  Hollar,  Wenzel 
Ilooghe,  Romeyn  de 
*IIopfer,  Daniel 
Hopfer,  Hieronymus 
Hopfer,  Lambert 
Houbraken,  Jacob    . 
Houston,  Richard     . 


2^6 


Isselburg,  Peter 


K 


PAGE 
248 
216 
289 
187 
289 
198 
126 

,  241 
241 
242 
263 
189 
126 
126 
126 


261 


Janinet,  Fran9ois 

.      296 

Jode,  Pieter  de 

.      150 

Jordaens,  Jakob 

•      159 

Josi,  Christian 

.     30> 

Julienne,  Jean  de 

.     211 

Kabel,  Adriaen  van  der    . 

187 

Kauffmann,  Angelica 

245 

*Kilian,  Lucas 

260 

Kilian,  Philipp 

267 

Kilian,  Wolfgang 

260 

Klein,  Johann  Adam 

2S6 

Knight,  Charles 

303 

*Kobell,  Ferdinand 

284 

Kobell,  Hendrick     . 

189 

Kobell,  Jan 

189 

Kolbe,  Karl  Wilhelm 

285 

Koninck,  Salomon    . 

180 

Krug.  Ludwig 

III 

Kussel,  Melchior 

265 

Laer,  Pictcr  van 
Lafreri,  Antonio 


1S3 
106 


Larmesiin,  Nicolas  de 

Lastman,  Pieter 

Launay,  Nicolas  de 

*Lautensack.  Hans  Sebald 

Lauvvers,  Conrad 

Lauwers,  Nicolas 

Lebarbier,    Jean-Jacques- Fran 

9ois       .... 
Lebas,  Jean-Philippe 
Lebas,  Philippe- 
Le  Blon,  Jacob  Christoph 
Lembke,  Johann  Philipp 
Lemire,  Noel   . 
Lenfant,  Jean 
Lepautre,  Jean 
Lepicie,  Bernard 
Le  Prince,  Jean-Baptiste  .         8, 
Leu,  Thomas  de       .         .         . 
Lewis,  F.  C.    .         .         .      248, 
*Leyden,  Lucas  van  .       134, 

*Lievens,  Jan  . 
Leonardo  da  Vinci   . 
Line-engraving 
Lippi,  Fra  Filippo    . 
Literature    of    Engraving    and 

Etching 
Little  Masters,  The  . 
Loggan,  David 
Longhi,  Giuseppe 
*Longueil,  Joseph  de 
*Lorrain,        Claude       (Claude 

Gellee) 
Lucientes.     See  Goya. 
Luiken,  Jan 
Lupton,  Thomas  Goff 
Lutma,  Tan       . 


M 

ALabuse,  Jan  van  (Jan  Gossart) 
*ALacArdell,  James 
Mair,  Alexander 
Mair,  Nicolaus  Alexander 
Malton,  Thomas 
Manglard,  Adrien     . 
RLansion,  Colard 
*Manlegna,   Andrea 
*Maratta,  Carlo 
Marc-Antonio  Raimondi 
Mariani,  Vincente    . 
Marillier,  Pierre-Clement 
Marinus  (Marin  Robin) 
Marshall,  William    . 
Massard,  jean 


INDEX 


309 


Massard,  Raphael  Urbin 

Masson,  Antoinc 

Master   of    145 1   (Master    with 

the    mark  ^B  )     . 
*Master    of    1464     (Master    of 

the  Banderoles)     . 
Master  of  1466  (Master  E.  S.) 
*Master  of  1480  (Master  of  the 

Amsterdam  Cabinet) 
Master  of  151 5 
Master     ^  (r,     (Albert 

Glockenton) 
Master    BM. 
Master  g    ^fc,  fV      • 
Master      b  C<  ff      (Barthel 

Schongauer  ? )       • 
Master  13.  V.  (Master  with  the 

Die) 

*MasterD.*V.  (Dirk  van  Staar) 
Master  E.  S.  of  1466  (1467)  • 
*Master  F.  V.   B.   (Eraiiz  von 

Bocholt)        .         .         .         • 

*Master  f  i    O    (^'eit    Stoss) 

Master  I.  A.  M.  of  Zwolle 
(Master  of  the  Weaver's 
Shuttle)        .... 

Master  ]  Ef^=       • 

Master  I.  B 

Master  J.  G.  (Jean  Gourmond) 

Master   L*  Qt*    ^       (Ludwig 

Schongauer) 

♦Master -L-C^'^- 

*  Master       M  "T         (Matthans 
J    \J      Zasinger)    . 
Master  ^Master  of  1451) 

Master     p    p)   W 

Master  S.  of  Brussels 
Master      W.       (Wenzel       von 
Olmutz)        .         •         ■         • 

Master  "W^.B     •         • 
Master    \V  /K     H       (Wolf- 
gang Hammer)     . 

Master       ^X/   ^ 


216 


Master 


km 


(Hans 
Windsheim) 


22 

24 

34 
S3 

48 
34 
45 

34 

104 
156 

24 

41 

4? 


39 

92 

1 22 
192 


49 

47 
20 

44 
>3S 

49 
36 

49 
41 


*Master    of     the     Amsterdam 

Cabinet  (Master  of  1480) 
*  Master     of     the     Banderoles 

(Master  of  1464)  . 
Master  of  the    Boccaccio    En 

gravings 
Master  of  the  Crab  . 
Master  of  the  Die     . 
*Master    of    the    Gardens    of 

Love    .... 
*Master  of  the  Playing-cards 
Master  of  the  Sibyl  . 
Master  of  the  St.  Erasmus 
Master   of    the    Vase    Designs 

(Kraterographie) 
*Master      of      the      Weaver' 

Shuttle  (Master  I.  A.  M.  of 

Zwolle) 
Matham,  Jacob 
*Mattoir 

Maurer,  Christoph    . 
*Mazzuoli,     Francesco,     called 

Parmigianino 
*Meckenen,  Israel  von 
Meil,  Johann  Wilhelm 
MeldoUa,  Andrea     . 
*Mellan,  Claude 
Melone,  Altobello  da 
Merian,  Matthaus,  the  elder 
Merian,  Matthaus,  the  younger 
Metsvs,  Cornells 
Metz',  C.  M.     . 
Meyer,  Dietrich 
Mezzotint,  process  of 
Miller,  William 
Millet,  Francois 
*Mocetto,  Girolamo 
*Modena,  Nicoletto  da     . 
IMoeyaert,  Claes  Cornelisz 
Mola,  Giov.  Battista 
Moles,  Pasqual  Pedro 
Molyn,  Pieter,  the  elder  . 
Montagna,  Benedetto 
Monte  Sancto  di  Dio  (Florence 

1477)    .... 
*Moreau,  Jean-Michel 
*Morghen.  Raphael 
Morin,  Jean 

Muller,"Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Miiller,  Gotthard  von 
Muller,  Jan 
Muntaner,  Francisco 


45 

34 

34 

39 
138 
104 

20 

17 
28 
20 

131 


39 

144 

9 
132 

226 

41 
282 
226 
200 

83 
262 
263 
138 
301 
262 

7 
248 
198 

85 

90 

166 

231 

290 

162 

90 

70 
I,  225 
238 
202 
276 
274 
144 
290 


3IO 


INDEX 


I'AGE 

Murillo,  liaitol.  Esteban  .         .     289 
Musi,    Agostino   de'   (Agoslino 
Veneziano)  .         .         .         .102 


N 

Naiwinx,  Hendrick  . 
*Nanteuil,  Robert     . 
Nattoir,  Charles-Fran9f)is 
Neeffs,  Jacob    . 
Neyts,  Gillis    . 
*Nicoletto  da  Modena 
*NielIo    .... 
Nooms,  Reynier,  called  Zeeman 
Norblin.  Jean-Pierre 
Nutter,  William 


O 


Oeser,  Adam  Fried  rich     . 
Olmiitz,  Wenzel  von 
Ossenbeck.  Jan  van  . 
*Ostade,  Adriaen  van 
Otto   Collection,  Engravings  of 

the 

Oudry,  Jean-Baptiste 


165 
204 
218 
150 

165 
90 

91 
182 
219 
303 


285 

49 

187 

I  So 

72 
218 


Painter-etchers 

14 

Paper       .... 

14 

*Parmigianino,     Francesco 

(Mazzuoli)    . 

226 

Parrocel,  Joseph 

21S 

Parrocel,  Pierre 

218 

Passe,  Crispin  de 

145 

Passe,  Magdalena  de 

145 

Passe,  Simon  de 
Passe,  Wilhelm  de    . 

I45> 
145. 

241 
241 

Payne,  John     . 
Peak,  James     . 
Pecham,  Georg 
Peeters,  Bonaventura 

242 

243 
264 
1S2 

Pellegrino  da  San  Daniele 

88 

*Pencz,  Georg 

121 

*Peregrino 
Pether,  William 

94 

256 

Pichler,  Johann  Peter 
Piranesi,  Francesco  . 

254, 

304 
236 

Piranesi,  Giov.  Batista 

236 

Pitau,  Nicolas  . 

207 

Pitteri,  Marco  . 

237 

Place,  Francis  . 

Planets,  seven  (Italian  engrav 

ings  of  the  15th  cent.) 
Plank       .... 
Ploos  v.  Amstel,  Cornells 
Poilly,  P'ran9ois  de  . 
Poilly,  Nicolas  de     . 
Pollajuolo,  Antonio 
Ponce.  Nicolas 
*Pontius,  Paul 
*  Potter,  Paulus 
Prestel,  Catharina    . 
Prestel,  Joh.  Theophilus 
Prince.     See  Le  Prince. 
Printing  . 
Printing-ink 
Printing-press  . 
Proofs  before  letters 
*Prophets,     Twenty-four    (pro 

bably  Florentine,  15th  cent. 
Punch      .... 
Purcell,  Richard 


Quast,  Pieter  Jansz 


R 


I'AGE 
254 

72 

10 

300 

206 

2o5 

74 
224 

148 

i«3 
301 

301 

10 
10 
10 
13 

74 

6 

256 


1S2 


Rabel,  Jean 

195 

*Raimondi,  Marc- Antonio 

95 

Ravenna,     Marco     da     (Marcc 

1 

Dente) 

103 

Reinhardt,  Johann  Christian 

285 

*  Rembrandt  liarmenszvan  Rijr 

^     167 

Remigius 

241 

Reni,  Guido     . 

231 

Reworking 

13 

*Ribera,  Giuseppe    . 

232 

Ridinger,  Johann  Elias     . 

277 

*Robetta,  Cristoforo 

76 

Robin,  INIarin  (Marinus)  . 

150 

Rocker     .... 

7 

*Rode,  Christian  Bernhard 

2S3 

Rodelstadt,  Peter 

132 

Rogers,  William 

241 

Roghmans,  Roelant 

165 

Roman,  Pedro 

289 

Roos,  Johann  Heinrich     . 

265 

Roos,  Johann  Melchior     . 

266 

Roos,  Theodor 

266 

*Rosa,  Salvator 

232 

Rossi        .... 

106 

INDEX 


311 


lAGE 

Kota,  Mailino  . 

228 

Roulette  . 

6 

Roullet,  Jean-Louis  . 

207 

Rousselet,  Gilles 

200 

Rowlandson,  Thomas 

24'5 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul . 

146, 

157 

Rugendas,  Geoig  Phil 

PP 

254 

Ruggieri,  Guido 

194 

*Ruisdael,  Jacob  van 

163 

Rupert,  Prince 

350 

Ryckemans,  Nicolas 

150 

Ryland,  William  Wynne 

246 

303 

Ryther,  Augustine    . 

241 

Sadeler,  Egidius 
Sadeler,  Johann 
Sadeler,  Raftael 
Saenredani.  Jan 
Saftleven,  Herman 
Saint-Aubin,  Augustin  de 
Salamanca,  Antonio 
Sandby,  Paul  . 
Sandrart,  Jacol:)  von 
Sandrart,  Joachim  Franz 
Savart,  Pierre  . 
Savery,  Roeland 
Say,  William    . 
Scheits,  Matthias 
Schenk,  Peter  . 
Schiavone,  Andrea  . 
Schiavonetti,  Lewis 
*Schmidt,  Georg  Friedrich 
Schmutzer,  Jacob 
Schdnfeld,  Heinrich 
Schongauer,  Barthel 
Schongauer,  Ludwig 
*Schongauer,  Martin 
Schuppen,  Pieter  van 
*Schut,  Cornelis 
Scraper    . 
Scultor,  Adamo 
Scultor,  Diana 
Scultor,  Giovanni  Battis 
Seghers,  Herkules    . 
Selma,  Fernando 
Sesto,  Cesare  da 
Sharp,  William 
Sherwin,  John  Keyse 
Sibmacher,  Hans 
Siegen,  Ludwig  von 
Simonet,  Jean-Baptiste 
Sintzenich,  Heinrich 


24 


261 
261 
261 
144 
162 
221 
106 
247 
267 
267 
217 

157 
258 
266 

303 
226 
301 
268 

273 
265 

34 

34 

28 

207 

158 

107 
107 
107 

.  303 
290 

83 

242 

,  254 

131 

248 

221 

254,  304 


166 


247 


Sirani,  Klisabetta 

Smith,  John 

Smith,  John  Raphael     247,  25 

*Solis,  Virgil    . 

Somer,  Pieter  van    . 

Soutman,  Pieter 

Spilsbury,  Hugo 

Spooner,  Charles 

Spranger,  Bartolomaus 

*Staar,  Dirk  van 

Stalbent,  Adriaen  van 

Stalburch,  Jan  van   . 

States       .... 

Steel  plates 

Stella,  Claudine  Baussonet 

Stella,  Jacques 

Stimmer,  Abel 

Stip|ile.  process  of    . 

Stoek,  Ignatius  van  der    . 

Storck,  Abraham 

Stoss,  Veit  (Master  f  ^  P 

Strange,  Robert 
Strauch,  Lorenz 
Suavius,  Lambert     . 
Subias,  Ramon  Bayeu  y 
Surugue,  Louis 
Sutherland,  T. 
*Suyderhoef,  Jonas  . 
Swanenburg,  Willem 
Swanevelt,  Herman  van 
Syrlin,  Jorg      . 


I'AGE 
23« 

254 
,25s 

130 
254 
147 

257 

256 

156 
156 

160 

139 

12 

15 
198 
198 
132 

6 
161 
1S2 

47 

242 

131 
138 
290 
211 
248 
152 
146 
187 
48 


Tanje,  Peter    . 

*Tardieu,  Nicolaus-IIchi-y 

Tardieu,  Pierre- Alexandre 

Tarockkarten(Italian  isth  cent. 

Technique 

Tempesta,  Antonio  . 

Teniers,  David 

Theses     . 

Thulden,  Theodor  van 

Thurneysser,  J  oh.  Jacob 

220,  267, 
Tiepolo,  Giov.  Battista     . 
*Tiepolo,  Giov.  Domenico 
Tiry,  Leonard  .... 
Tomkins,  Peter  William  .      247, 
Toschi,  Paolo  .         .         .      216, 
Trial  proofs      .... 


155 
209 
217 

77 
I 

231 
159 
207 

15S 

268 
233 
234 
194 
301 
240 
12 


312 


INDEX 


I'AfJE 

Trouvain,  Antoine    .         .         .     207 
Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William 

245,  24S,  25S 

U 

*Uden,  Lucas  van     .         .  .160 

Uffenbach,  Philipp  .         .  .     264 

Uijlenbroeck,  AKises  van .  .      166 

*Umbach,  Jonas       .  .  .     265 


Vadder,  Lodewyck  de  .  .  )6i 
*Vaillant,  Wallerant  .         -251 

Valk,  Gerard  ....  254 
Van  Dyck,  Anthony  .      151,  1 58 

Vasquez,  Bartolome  .  .     290 

Vavassore,  Zoan  Andrea  .  .  So 
Velazquez,  Diego      .  .  .     289 

Velde,  Adriaen  van  de  .  .  1S4 
Velde,  Esaias  van  de  .  .  ^162 
Velde,  Jan  van  de  .  128,  152, '162 
Vendramini,  Giovanni       .  .      247 

*Veneziano,  Agostino        .  .      102 

Verboom,  Adriaen   .  .  .165 

Verino,  Benedetto    .  .  .      104 

Verkolje,  Jan  ....  253 
Verkolje,  Nicolas  .  .  253,  254 
Veronese,  Battista  dell'  Angelo, 

called  del  JNIoro     .  .  .     226 

Vertue,  George  .  .  .  242 
Vico,  Enea  ....  106 
Vien,  Joseph-Marie .  .  .     225 

Villamena,  Francesco        .  .     230 

Vinckboons,  David  .  .  -157 
*Visscher,  Comelis  .  .  .152 
Vivares,  Francis       .  .  .     243 

Vliet,  J.  G.  van  .  .  .  17S 
Vlieger,  Simon  de  .  .  .  165 
Vogel,  Bcrnhard       .  .  -25^ 

Volpalo,  Giovanni    .  .  .     238 

Vorstermann,  Lucas  .  .      147 

Vriendt,  Franz  de  (FransFloris)     156 


W 

Wael,  Jan  Bapliste  de 

Walker,  James 

Wallis,  Robert 

Ward,  William  .  .      257, 

Waterloo,  Antoni 

Water-marks    . 

W^atson,  Carol  ne 

Watson,  James 

*Watteau,  Antoine   .  .      209, 

Weigel,  Christof 

*Weirotter,  Franz  Edmund 

Wenzel  von  Olomucz  (Olniiitz 

White,  Kobert 

W^ierix,  Anton 

*W^ierix,  Flieronymus 

Wierix,  Jan 

Wijck,  Thomas 

Wilkie,  David 

*Wille,  Georg 

Williams,  Robert 

Wilson,  Benjamin    . 

Windsheim,     Hans    (>Laster 


k-mi 


Wit,  Jacob  de  . 
Wiidoek,  Jan  . 
Woeiriot,  Pierre 
Woollett,  William 
Working  proofs 
Worlidge,  Thomas 


*Zasinger,  Matth.  (Master 

A3)        .       ;         . 

Zeeman  (Reynier  Nooms) 
Ziindt,  Matthias 


161 
256 
248 
258 
165 
14 
247 
256 
218 

253 
2S5 

49 
242 
140 
140 
140 
187 

245 
214 

254 
245 


47 

1 89 
150 
193 

242 
12 

245 


47 
182 
131 


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Head  and  Tail  pieces.  Printed  on  superfine  paper,  limited  to  300  numbered 
.copies.     Imp.  Svo.      Cloth,  gilt  top.    £1    \s.  net. 

ARCH/EOLOGICAL    WORKS. 
Prof.  E.  Babelon.     Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities, 

Including  the  Architecture,  .Sculpture,  and  Industrial  Arts  of  Chaldaja, 
Assyria,  Persia,  Syria,  Judtea,  Phcenicia  and  Carthage.  By  Ernest 
Babelon,  Librarian  of  the  Department  of  Medals  and  Antiques  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.  With  241  Illustrations.  New  Edition, 
with  an  additional  Chapter  on  the  Recent  Finds  at  Susa.  Crown  Svo. 
Cloth  extra,  gilt  top,  "js.  6d.  net. 
"  The  '  Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities,'  which  takes  deservedly  a  high  position  both 

for  the  general  accuracy  cf  its  statements  and  excellent  character  of  its  illustrations." 

— Alhiiictiiiii. 

2^,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


H.  Grevel  and  Co.'s  Publications. 


ARCH/EOLOGICAL     WORKS  -continued. 

"  M.  Babelon's  work  has  already  won  such  a  hi{;h  measure  of  praise  from  the 
students  of  Oriental  archaeolojjy  that  its  place  is  assured  ainonpf  modern  authorities  on 
the  art  and  culture  of  the  ancient  civilised  nations  of  Western  Asia." — Araiiemy. 

"The  quantity  of  information  contained  in  one  small  volume  is  wonderful,  embrac- 
ing the  art  history  of  Clialdaea,  Assyria,  Persia,  Syria,  Judasa,  Phoenicia,  and  Carthag:e. 
By  the  study  of  the  illustrations  alone,  a  clear  idea  can  be  gained  cf  the  difl'erent 
characteristics  of  tliese  nations." — Spcrlntor. 

Prof.  Jean  Capart.    Primitive  Art  in  Egypt. 

By  Jean  Capart,  Keeper  of  the  Egyptian  Antiquities  of  the  Royal 
Museums,  Brussels  ;  Translated  from  the  Specially  Revised  Original 
Edition,  by  A.  S.  Grifkith.  With  213  Illustrations,  royal  8vo.  Cloth 
extra,  ]5rice  l(>s.  net. 

M.  Cai'.vrt  deals  with  the  ])rimiiive  civilisation  of  Egypt.  One  chapter 
he  devotes  to  its  junction  with  the  earliest  Pharaonic  civilisation  and  the 
recently  discovf  red  remains  of  that  period.  'I'he  book  is  fascinating  in  its 
description  of  art  and  culture  as  they  existed  in  the  Nile  Valley  six  or 
seven  thousand  years  ago.  M.  Capart  has  produced  a  work  which 
introduces  us  to  a  new  world  of  interest,  while  the  anthropologist  and 
ethnologist  will  find  material  collected  and  conclusions  arrived  at  which 
are  of  the  greatest  interest  and  importance. 

"  M.  Capart  has  chose"  a  fascinating  subject,  which  he  has  treated  in  an  interesting 
and  lucid  manner." — Daily  A'ews. 

"  It  is  gratifying  to  find  such  a  treatise  as  this  made  easily  accessible  to  all  in  the 
excellent  English  translation." — G/asi;o:i'  Herald. 

"  Valuable  to  the  students  of  both  Art  and  Eg\-ptology.'' — Tabic/. 

Maxime   Collig'non.     Manual  of  Mythology  in  Re- 
lation to  Greek  Art. 

Translated  and  enlarged  by  Jane  E.  Harrison,  Author  of  "Myths  of  the 
Odyssey,"  "  Introductory  Studies  in  Greek  Art,"  etc.     With  140  Illustra- 
tions.    New  and  Cheaper  Edition,  revised.     Crown  Svo.     Cloth,     "js.  6d. 
"This  is  a  good  book.     It  fills  a  gap  in  our  literature,  doing  for  Greek  mythology  much 
the  same  service  which  Mrs,  janneson  rendered  to  Christian  hagiolo.y," — Acailmiv 

Prof.    Charles    Diehl.      Excursions    to    Greece     to 
recently  explored  Sites  of  Classical  Interest. 

Mycense,  Tiryns,  Dodona,  Delos,  Athens,  Olympia,  Eleusis,  Epidauros, 
Tanagra  ;  by  Charles   Diehl,    Professor  at  the  Univer-ity  of  Nancy. 
Translated  by  Emma  R.  Perkins.    Illustrated.    Crown  Svo.  Cloth.  Ts.6d. 
"  It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  a  single  volume  in  English  which  takes  so  compre- 
hensive a  survey  or  deals  with  its  materials  in  a  manner  at  once  S3  scientific  and  so 
popular  as  this  work  01  M.  Di -hi.  '—Tinii's 

Talfourd  Ely.    Olympos :  Tales  of  the  Gods  of  Greece 

and    Rome.      With   47    Woodcuts  and   6   Full-page    Photographic 

Plates.     Crown  Svo.     Cloth.     7^^.  6d 

"  One  feature  of  the  book  should  be  especially  useful  to  joung  readers.  Zeus  and 
Jupiter,  Hera  and  Juno,  Poseidon  and  Neptune,  and  the  rest,  have  parallel  but  distinct 
accounts  given  to  them,  so  that  the  difl'erence  of  origin  of  Greek  and  Roman  deities  is 
made  clear." — Si.  James's  Gazelle. 

"  Wakes  a  capital  gilt-book  "—Scolsinaii. 

The    Demotic    Magical    Papyrus    of    London    and 
Leiden. 

Editetl  by  F.  Ll.  Grifi  rril  (Reader  in  Egyptology  in  the  University  of 
Oxford,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin), 
and  Sir  Herbert  Thompson,  Bart.     Text,  \o\.  I.     210  pp.     Royal 
Svo.     Cloth,     icf.  6d.  net. 
Do.     Atlas,  Vol.   J.     Thirty-three  Plates.     Folio.     Cloth.     los.  6d.  net. 
Limited  Edition  of  200  cojiies  only. 

33,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


4  H.  Grevel  &  Co.'s  Publications. 

ARCH/EOLOGIOAL     WORKS-  continued. 

Prof.  F.  Maspero.    Manual  of  Eg-yptian  Arehaeolog-y. 

A  Popular  Guide  to  the  Egyptian  Antiquities  (or  Students  and  Travellers. 
Translated  by  Amelia  B.  Edwards,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.     With  336  Illustra- 
tions.    5th  Edition,  augmentel  and  revised.     Crown  8vo.     Cloth,  ds. 
"It  is  a  marvel  of  erudition  and   condensatian.     It   sums  up   the   long   results   of 
thousands  of  years  of  Egyptian  civilisation  in  language  precise  enough  to  make  the 
woik  a  handbook  for  the  siecialist,  and  popular  enough  to  insure  its  becoming  a  guide 
to  the  antiquaiian  lore  of  ihe  country  for  travellers  in  Egypt." — Scotsman. 

Pierre  Paris.    Manual  of  Ancient  Sculpture. 

Translated  and  augmented  by  Jane  E.  Harrison,  Author  of  "  Myths  of 
the   Odyssey,"   "  Introductory  Studies   in    Greek   Art,"  etc.     With   187 
Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     Cloth  e.xtra,  gilt  top.      los.  6ci. 
'•M.    Paris'   admirable   manual   gives  us   within   the    narrow  compass  a  lucid  and 
compendious  survey  of  the  sculpture  of  the  ancient  \voT\d.." —St.  James's  Gazette. 

Prof.     A.     W^iedemann.       The     Ancient     Egyptian 
Doctrine    of   the    Immortality    of   the    Soul. 

With  21  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     Cloth.     35. 

"Prof.  Wicdfmann's  treatise  is  quite  a  perfect  thing  of  its  kind.  He  treats  his 
fascinating  subject  with  marvellous  clearness,  and  the  reader  follows  his  guidance 
through  the  mazes  of  the  great  system  of  immortality  with  breathless  interest." — 
Saturday  Kevieiv. 

•'Prot".  Wiedemann's  little  book  appeals  not  only  to  the  Egyptologist,  but  also  to  the 
student  of  religion  and  history,  as  well  as  to  that  larger  public  which  is  interested  in 
all  that  relates  to  the  thoughts  ard  beliefs  of  civilised  men,  when  set  forth  in  lucid 
language  by  a  skilful  and  learned  interpreter." — Acai1i)iiy. 

Prof.  A.  Wiedemann.     The  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians. 

With  73  Illustrations  from  the  Monuments.     Demy  Svo.     Cloth.     125.  6d. 

"  Prof.  Wiedemann's  work  evinces  sound  scholarship,  and  merits  the  attention  ot 
all  who  are  inteiested  in  the  study  of  the  religions  of  the  world.'' — Moniiiig  Post. 

"  We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  volume  before  us  is  the  most  lucid  and 
thorough  monograph  in  English  on  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians  as  disclosed  by  the 
monuments." — Guardian. 

CHEMISTRY     AND     ENGINEERING     WORKS. 

Carl  Busley.     The  Marine  Steam  Engine.    Its  Con- 
struction, Action  and  Management. 

Translated  by  H.  A.  15.  Cole.  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  \'ol.  I.,  complete, 
with  Atlas  of  63  Plates  containing  over  1,500  Drawings  and  Diagrams. 
Svo.     Cloth.      1892-1902.     ;/^2  net. 

Paul    Heyne.     Practical    Dictionary    of    Electrical 
Engineering  and  Chemistry. 

In   ttie    German,    English,  and  Spanish  Languages,   treating  specially  of 
Modern   Machine   Industry,  the  Foundry,  and  Metallurgy.     3  Vols.     Svo. 
Cloth.     15^.     Also  separately  : — 
Vol.1.     German-Engi  ish-Sp.anish,  5s.  Vol.11.     English-Sp.^nish-German,  5,9. 

Vol.  III.     Si'anish-German-English,  5s. 

Prof.  Dr.  Lassar-Cohn.    Chemistry  in  Daily  Life. 

Translated  into  English  by  M.  M.  Pattison  Muik,  ^I.A.,  P'elluw  of 
Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  With  22  Illustrations.  Third 
Edition,  revised  and  augmented.     Crown  Svo.     Cloth,     ^s. 

"We  like  this  book,  and  every  page  proves  to  be  interesting  reading." — Lancet. 

"The  variety  of  matter  with  uhich  the  author  deals  is  amazing." — Daily  Chronicle. 

"A  work  of  this  kind,  in  our  opinion,  may  be  credited  with  an  educational  value  of 
no  ordinary  nature." — Glasgow  Herald. 

T,l,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


H.  Grevel  &  Co.'s  Publications. 


CHEMISTRY  AND  ENGINEERING  YIORV^S-roiitiiiued. 

Prof.   Dp.    Lassar-Cohn.      Introduction    to    Modern 
Chemistry. 

Translated  from  the  Second  German  Edition  l)y  M.   M.   Pattison  Muir, 

IM.A.,    Fellow   of  Gonville   and    Caius    College,    Cambridge.     With    58 

Illustrations  by  the  Author.     New  Edition.     Crown  8vo.     Cloth.     35.  6d. 

"  Prof.  Las?ar-Cohn's  Introduction  to  Modern  Scientific  Chemistry  is  a  delightful 

book,  clearly  and  well  written.     It  is  intended  to  be  both  scientific  and   popular."— 

Britisli  Medical  J  oitinaL 

"  We  would  particularly  recommend  the  book  to  those  who  have  been  discouraged 
by  the  forbidding  aspect  of  the  average  chemistry  textbook."— Aytr/irt«fV«/  W'uvld. 

"It  covers  in  a  series  of  clear  and  interesting  lectures  the  initiatory  doctrines  ot 
scientific  chemistry,  and  is  distinguished  among  books  for  its  success  in  making  the 
subject  attractive  to  readers  not  specially  covenanted  to  this  study."— S<v>/>w/rt«. 

Prof.  Dr.  Rotat.  Llipke.     The  Elements  of  Electro- 
chemistry. 

Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  by  M.  M.  P-ATTISOX  Ml'IK,  M.A., 
Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.     With  64 
Illustrations  in  the  Text.     Demy  8vo.     Cloth.      7^.  dd. 
"The  book  is  laid  out  with  great  skill  and   care,  and   arranged  with  the  evident 

intention   of  putting  together   a  connected   account   of  recent    progress   in   eleitro- 

chemistry."— ZT/cc// ;cm//. 

GERMAN     LANGUAGE. 

Muret-Sanders'    Encyclopsedic    Dictionary    of    the 
English  and  German  Languages. 

English-German      2  Vols.     £225.  German-English.     2  Vols.     £2 -is. 

Unabridged  Edition.     4  Vols.     4to.     Half-calf.     £/\  45. 
Muret-Sanders'  Encyclopa?dic  Dictionary  is  the  latest,  largest,  and  by  far  the  most 
comprehensive  of  all  English  German  Dictionaries,  and  specially  adapted  for  the  use 
of  scientific  and  literary  men.     Used  in  all  Government  Offices. 

Muret-Sanders'     English-German     and     German- 
English  Dictionary  for  Schools 

and  General  Reailers.  Aliridgment  of  the  Encyclopailic  Dictionary.  In 
2  Vols.     Royal  Svo.     Half-calf.      i6.'.-. 

Muret-Sanders'     English-German     and     German- 
English  Pocket  Dictionary. 

For  cjuick  Reference,  the  use  of  Travellers,  and  Conversation.  Bound  in 
I  Vol.      l6mo.     Cloth.     3.?.  6(/. 

"William   Eysenbach.     Practical   Grammar    of   the 
German  Language. 

With  Reading  Lessons  and  a  German-English  and  English-German 
Vocabulary.     New  Edition.     Svo.     Cloth.      '-,$.  6d. 

Bismarck's  Table  Talk. 

The  Story  of  his  Life  in  his  own  words.  With  Notes  and  an  Introduction. 
Edited  by  Ch.^RLES  Lowe,  ^M.A..  author  of  "Prince  Bismarck,  an 
Historical  Biography,"  etc.  With  Portrait.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition. 
Crown  Svo.     Boards.     35-.  6d. 

MUSICAL    WORKS     (WAGNER). 

Richard      W^agner      to      Mathilde      W^esendonck. 
Letters  and  Leaves  from  a  Diary. 

With  Portraits  and  Facsimiles.     Translated  jy  WiLLIAM  AsHTON  El.Lls. 
Demy  Svo.     Cloth  extra.     i6.r.  net. 
"  We   are   presiding   over   the   creation   of  great   works   of  art,   seeing   how   they 
germinate  in  the  artist's   mind,   observing    how   they    are    modified    by-   subsequent 
thought  and  experience." — Daily  Tekgrapti. 

33,  King  Street, 'Covent  G.\rden,  London,  W.C. 


6  H.  Grevel  &  Co.'s  Publications. 

MUSICAL     WORKS     (WAGNER)— rg;///;;//^ 

"  Nothing  more  sincere,  nothing  more  intimate  was  ever  written  than  these  letters 
and  journals  addressed  to  the  woman  who  came  into  Wagner's  hfe  precisely  when  his 
genius  required  her,  and  dropped  out  of  it  precisely  when  his  service  was  accom- 
plished."— Outlook. 

"  As  an  example  of  the  private  and  intimate  correspondence  of  a  great  man,  they 
will  rank  beside  Goethe's  Letters  to  Frau  von  Stein."  — Scofe;;/aH. 

"Of  all  Wagner  books  in  existence,  this  book  of  letters  should  be  the  most  popular 
with  the  musician,  with  the  student  of  psychology  of  genius,  and  with  the  general 
reader."— Pn//  Mall  Gazelle. 

Coppespondence  of  Wagnep  and  Liszt. 

Translated  into  English,    with   a    Preface    by    Dr.    Fkanxis    Hueffer. 

2  Vols.     8vo.     Cloth,  gilt  top.     £\  \s. 
"Nothing  more  instructive  with  regard  to  the  real  character  and  relations  of  Liszt 
and   Wagner  has  been  published.     Seldom  have  the  force  and  fervour  of  Wagner's 
German  been  rendered  with  such  accuracy   ar.d   character  in   a  strange   tongue." — 
Manchestir  Guardian. 

Richapd  "Wagnep's  Letteps  to  Otto  Wesendonek  et  al. 

Translated  and  Inde.xed  Ijy  Wm.  A.shton  Ellis.  i6mo.  Cloth,  gilt 
tup.      5.f.  net. 

Letteps  of  Richapd  W^agnep  to  Emil  Heekel. 

With  a  Brief  History  of  the  Hayreuth  Festivals  Translated  and  Indexed 
by  W.M.  AsiiTON  Ellls.      i6nio.     Cloth,  gilt  top.     5r.  net. 

Letteps  to  Fpanz  Liszt. 

Edited  and  Collected  by  La  Maka.  Translated  by  Constance  B.ache. 
Vol.     I.     YeaPS  of  Tpavel  as  ViPtUOSO.     With  a   Portrait. 

Vol.  II.  FPOm  Rome  to  the  End.  With  a  Frontispiece. 
2  \'ols.  Crown  Svo.  Cloth,  ^i  is. 
"Between  six  and  seven  hundred  letters,  every  one  of  which  is  worth  reading,  are 
reproduced  in  this  collection,  and  are  lavishly  supplemented  by  Chronological  and 
Explanatory  Note?,  which  render  the  book  extremely  valuable  to  musicians  and  men 
of  letters  as  a  woik  of  reference.  Its  technical  production,  moreover,  is  in  every 
respect  exemplary." — Di'lv  Tclciiraph. 

Wagnep  and  his  "Wopks. 

The  Story  of  his  Life,  with  Critical  Comments,  by  Henry  T.   Finck. 
With  Two  Portraits.     2  Vols.     Crown  Svo.     Cloth.    £\  \s. 
"  Mr.  Finck's  work  is  perhaps  the  most  exhaustive  and  appreciative  account  of  the 
great  composer  that  has  appeared  in  the  English  language." — Times. 

J.  E.  Matthew.     A  Handbook   of  Musical  Histopy 
and  Biog"paphy. 

With    i6o  Illustrations  of  Portraits,   Musical  Instruments,   Facsimiles    of 

rare  and  curious  Musical  W^orks.     Demy  Svo.     Cloth.      lOi-.  6d. 

"  The  author  covers  the  entire  ground  of  his  subject  from  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  to 

the  present  day,  and  serves  admirably  for  those  who  wish  to  obtain  some  general  idea 

as  to  the  progress  of  the  art.     The  lacts  are  succinctly  set  forth,  the  statements  are 

correct,  and  the  many  illustrations  give  the  work  a  distinct  value.''— Daily  Telegraph. 

FENCING. 
Capt.  Alfped  Hutton.    The  Swopdsman. 

A  Manual  of  Fence  for  the  Foil,  Sabre,  and  Bayonet.  With  an  Appendi.x 
consisting  of  a  Code  of  Rules  for  Assaults,  Competitions,  etc.  New 
Edition.     \Vith  42  Illusiraiions.     Crown  Svo.     Buards.      is.  6d. 

Capt.  Alfped  Hutton.    Old  Swopd  Play. 

With  58  Illustrations,  containing  a  Series  of  Studies  of  the  Swordsmanship 
of  the  i6th,  17th,  and  iSlh  Centuries,  embracing  the  Twohand  Sword, 
Rapier  and  Dagger,  Broadsword  and  Buckler,  "Case  of  Rapiers,"  Early 
Small  Sword  PJay,  etc.  Superfine  Dutch  paper.  (Limited  to  300 
Copies.)     Royal  Svo.     Buckram.     ;^I  i.f.  net. 

II,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


L.)  pjoYin  O^y : 


if: 

^' .  * 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILIT  / 

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